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Cohesion And Coherence In Essay Writing

Table of contents, introduction, definitions cohesion and coherence, what is coherence, what is cohesion, how to achieve cohesion and coherence in essay writing, lexical cohesion, grammatical cohesion, substitutions, conjunctions transition words, cohesive but not coherent texts.

The player threw the ball toward the goalkeeper. Balls are used in many sports. Most balls are spheres, but American football is an ellipsoid. Fortunately, the goalkeeper jumped to catch the ball. The crossbar in the soccer game is made of iron. The goalkeeper was standing there.

How to write a coherent essay?

1. start with an outline, 2. structure your essay.

3. Structure your paragraphs

4. relevance to the main topic, 5. stick to the purpose of the type of essay you’re-writing, 6. use cohesive devices and signposting phrases.

What is signposting in writing?

Essay signposting phrases.

7. Draft, revise, and edit

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Coherence in Writing

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Have you ever read a piece of writing and wondered what point the writer was trying to make? If so, that piece of writing probably lacked coherence. Coherence is an important aspect of good writing—as important as good grammar or spelling. However, it is also rather harder to learn how to do it, because it is not a matter of simple rules.

Coherent writing moves smoothly between ideas. It guides the reader through an argument or series of points using signposts and connectors. It generally has a clear structure and consistent tone, with little or no repetition. Coherent writing feels planned —usually because it is. This page provides some tips to help you to develop your ability to write coherently.

Defining Coherence

Dictionary definition of coherence

cohere , v. to stick together, to be consistent, to fit together in a consistent, orderly whole.

coherence , a sticking together, consistency.

Source: Chambers English Dictionary, 1989 edition.

The dictionary definition of coherence is clear enough—but what does that mean in practical terms for writers?

Once you have achieved coherence in your writing, you will find that:

Your sentences and ideas are connected and flow together;

Readers can move easily through the text from one sentence, paragraph or idea to the next; and

Readers will be able to follow the ideas and main points of the text.

On the other hand, a text that is NOT coherent jumps between ideas without making clear connections between them. It is often hard to follow the argument. Readers may find themselves unclear about the point of particular paragraphs or even whole sections. There may be odd sentences that do not fit well with the previous or following sentence, or paragraphs that repeat earlier ideas.

All these issues provide pointers for how to develop coherence.

Elements of Coherence

There are several different elements that contribute to coherence, or are closely linked to the concept.

They include:

Cohesion , or whether ideas are linked within and between sentences.

Unity , or the extent to which a sentence, paragraph or section focuses on a single idea or group or ideas. In any given paragraph, every sentence should be relevant to a single focus.

A joint effort

Together, cohesion and unity mean that sentences and paragraphs are connected around a central theme.

• Flow , or how the reader is led through the text. Some of this is about the ordering of ideas, but it also takes into account issues like phrasing, rhythm and style. Some people define flow as the quality that makes writing engaging and easy to read.

Levels of Coherence

We can consider coherence at several different levels. These include:

Within sentences. A sentence is coherent when it flows naturally, and uses correct grammar , spelling and punctuation . Coherence also includes the use of the most appropriate words, and avoidance of redundancy.

Between sentences . Coherence between sentences means that each sentence flows logically and naturally from the previous one. Connections are made between them so that readers can see the flow of ideas, and how each sentence is linked to the previous one.

Within paragraphs . This is a logical extension of coherence between sentences. Coherence within a paragraph means that the sentences within the paragraph work together as a whole to present a complete thesis or idea.

Why single-sentence paragraphs don’t work

This definition of ‘within paragraph’ coherence explains why you should (almost) never use single-sentence paragraphs. A single sentence is (almost) never going to be able to provide a complete summary of your thesis or idea.

Between paragraphs . For most pieces of writing, you will also need to consider how the paragraphs fit together. Each paragraph covers an idea or thesis—and must then be connected logically to the next paragraph, so that your overall thesis is built step-by-step.

Between subsections or sections . This final level of coherence is only really important for longer documents. You must create a logical flow between different sections, to guide your reader from one to the next so that they can follow the development of your ideas.

Techniques to Improve Coherence

The first step to improving coherence is to plan your writing in advance.

Decide on the main point that you want to make, and the ideas that will lead your reader towards your point. It is also helpful to consider your planned audience, and what they want from your text.

There is  more about this in our page on Know Your Audience . You may also find it helpful to read our page on Know Your Medium , to check whether there is anything about your publishing medium that you need to consider ahead of starting to write.

There are some techniques that you can use to help improve coherence within your writing. These include:

Using transitional expressions and phrases to signal connections

Words and phrases like ‘however’, ‘because’, ‘therefore’, ‘additionally’, and ‘on the one hand... on the other’ can be used to signal connections between sentences and paragraphs.

WARNING! Real connections needed!

Transitional phrases and words should only be used where the ideas really are connected.

Just inserting transitional expressions will not connect your ideas. Instead, you need to create a reasonable progression of ideas through a paragraph or section.

You also need to use transitional expressions sparingly. Not all ideas need an obvious link—and sometimes putting one in can seem awkward and contrived.

Using repeating forms or parallel structures to emphasise links between ideas

Generally speaking, repetition of words and phrases is unadvisable.

However, used sparingly, you may be able to harness repetition as a way to signal connections between sentences or ideas.

For example, many research papers have a section setting out the limitations of the study. These limitations can often be quite diverse, which makes for a rather disjointed section. To overcome this issue, writers often use the form ‘First... Second... Finally...’ to demonstrate the links between the disparate ideas.

Using pronouns and synonyms to eliminate unnecessary repetition

Repetition is often the enemy of coherence because it interrupts your movement through the writing. You tend to get distracted by the repeated words, and lose the thread of the argument or idea.

Pronouns and synonyms are a good way to avoid repeating words and phrases. However, care is needed when using them, to avoid ambiguity. It is advisable NOT to use pronouns following a sentence with two elements that might take the same pronoun.

For example:

John was sure that Tom was wrong. He had made the same argument last week.

Who made the same argument last week? John or Tom?

It is better to use at least one name again than create ambiguity.

TOP TIP! Come back later

It is often hard to detect ambiguity in your own writing because you know what you wanted to say.

It is therefore a good idea to leave any piece of writing overnight, and read it again in the morning. This will often identify problems such as ambiguous pronouns, and give you a chance to revise them.

Revisit, Revise and Review

Alongside planning, the single most important thing that you can do to improve the coherence of a piece of writing is to review and revise it with the reader’s needs in mind.

When you have finished a piece of writing, put it aside for a while. Overnight is ideal, but longer is fine. Once you have had a chance to forget precisely what you meant, read it over again as if you were coming to it for the first time.

As you start to read, consider the focus of your text: the main point that you want to make.

With that in mind, consciously examine whether the ideas flow clearly through your sentences, paragraphs and sections. Can the reader grasp your argument and follow it through the text? Is there an obvious conclusion?

While you are reading, you should also consider whether there are any very long sentences. If so, shorten them, using transitional words or phrases to link them together effectively. This will make your writing easier to read, and it will naturally flow better.

A Final Thought

It is not always easy to know how to create more coherent writing.

The best way to do so is to plan your writing, and then review it carefully. You should particularly consider your focus, and your readers’ needs. In doing so, you may find it helpful to use some of the techniques described on this page—but they will not, in themselves, be sufficient without the planning and review.

Continue to: Writing Concisely Using Plain English

See also: The Importance of Structure in Writing Editing and Proofreading Copywriting

English Studies

This website is dedicated to English Literature, Literary Criticism, Literary Theory, English Language and its teaching and learning.

Coherence: A Literary Device

Coherence, as a literary device, refers to the quality of logical connection and consistency within a text or discourse, ensuring that ideas, arguments, or elements make sense and are well-structured in relation to one another.

Etymology of Coherence

Table of Contents

The term “coherence” has its etymological roots in the Latin word “cohaerentia,” derived from “cohaerens,” which means “sticking together” or “connected.”

In an academic context, coherence refers to the quality of logical connection and consistency within a text, discourse, or argument, where ideas, themes, or elements are united in a manner that facilitates understanding and clarity.

Meanings of Coherence

Definition of Literary Device of Coherence

It plays a crucial role in promoting clarity and understanding in written or spoken communication, making the content accessible and meaningful to the audience.

Coherence is essential for creating a unified composition, enhancing smooth transitions between sections, and establishing cohesive relationships between different parts of a work, ultimately contributing to the overall effectiveness and thematic unity of a literary or rhetorical piece.

Types of Coherence

Common Examples of Coherence

• Essay Writing : In well-structured essays, coherence ensures that ideas flow logically from one paragraph to the next, creating a unified and comprehensible argument.
• Speeches and Presentations : Rhetorical coherence is essential in speeches and presentations, as it helps speakers organize their ideas and deliver them in a clear and persuasive manner.
• Fiction and Literature : Thematic coherence is evident in novels and stories when all elements, including characters, subplots, and themes, align with the central theme or purpose of the work.
• Academic Research Papers : Textual coherence ensures that academic papers are logically structured, with sentences and paragraphs connected in a coherent manner, allowing readers to follow the argument.
• Art and Visual Arts : Aesthetic coherence is found in artworks, where the composition, colors, and elements create a sense of completeness and harmony, contributing to the overall artistic impact.
• Music Composition : Structural coherence is crucial in music, where the arrangement of musical elements, such as melodies, harmonies, and rhythms, ensures a unified and harmonious composition.
• Conversations and Dialogues : In everyday conversations, coherence allows individuals to express themselves clearly, with ideas and responses logically connected for effective communication.
• Websites and User Interfaces : Coherence in user interfaces ensures that elements and navigation are logically structured, making websites and applications user-friendly.
• Film and Video Editing : In film, coherence is achieved through well-edited sequences that create a cohesive and meaningful narrative.
• Legal Documents : Legal texts require textual coherence to ensure clarity and precision in conveying complex legal concepts and arguments.

Examples of Coherence

Example#1: jefferson: the declaration of independence.

“Nor have We been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.”

Analysis: The passage from Thomas Jefferson’s “The Declaration of Independence” displays coherence through its logical progression and thematic consistency. Firstly, it establishes a context of addressing the British brethren and their unjust actions. Then, it traces the efforts made to communicate concerns and appeals for justice, creating a clear cause-and-effect relationship. This progression enhances the reader’s understanding of the issues at hand. Additionally, the consistent use of terms like “usurpations” and “separation” reinforces the central theme of seeking independence, maintaining coherence by repetition of key concepts. Finally, the concluding statement about considering the British as “Enemies in War, in Peace Friends” serves as a coherent resolution to the narrative, reinforcing the declaration of independence.

Example#2: ARENDT: Total Domination

“Total domination, which strives to organize the infinite plurality and differentiation of human beings as if all of humanity were just one individual, is possible only if each and every person can be reduced to a never-changing identity of reactions, so that each of these bundles of reactions can be exchanged at random for any other. The problem is to fabricate something that does not exist, namely, a kind of human species resembling other animal species whose only “freedom” would consist in “preserving the species.”Totalitarian domination attempts to achieve this goal both through ideological indoctrination of the elite formations1 and through absolute terror in the camps; and the atrocities for which the elite formations are ruthlessly used become, as it were, the practical application of the ideological indoctrination — the testing ground in which the latter must prove itself — while the appalling spectacle of the camps themselves is supposed to furnish the “theoretical” verification of the ideology .”

Analysis: Hannah Arendt’s passage on “Total Domination” demonstrates coherence through its exploration of the concept’s various facets. Arendt initially defines total domination as an attempt to homogenize humanity by reducing individuals to unchanging, interchangeable bundles of reactions, which serves as a clear thematic foundation. The text then elaborates on the methods used to achieve this goal, specifically, ideological indoctrination and terror in the camps. The transition between these two methods is logical and coherent, as Arendt explains how the atrocities in the camps are the practical application of ideological indoctrination. The paragraph maintains coherence through the consistent focus on the central theme of totalitarian domination and the cause-and-effect relationships between different elements of this concept, providing a structured and comprehensible narrative.

Example#3: THOREAU: Civil Disobedience

“After all, the practical reason why, when the power is once in the hands of the people, a majority are permitted, and for a long period continue, to rule is not because they are most likely to be in the right, nor because this seems fairest to the minority but because they are physically the strongest. But a government in which the majority rule in all cases cannot be based on justice, even as far as men understand it. Can there not be a government in which majorities do not virtually decide right and wrong but conscience? — in which majorities decide only those questions to which the rule of expediency is applicable? Must the citizen ever for a moment, or in the least degree, resign his conscience to the legislator? Why has every man a conscience then? I think that we should be men first and subjects afterward. It is not desirable to cultivate a respect for the law, so much as for the right. The only obligation which I have a right to assume is to do at any time what I think right. It is truly enough said that a corporation has no conscience; but a corporation of conscientious men is a  corporation with a conscience.”

Analysis: Henry David Thoreau’s passage from “Civil Disobedience” maintains coherence through a consistent line of argumentation. Thoreau begins by discussing the practical reasons for majority rule, namely, the physical strength of the majority, which sets the context for his exploration of the limitations of such a system. He then introduces the concept of conscience as an alternative to majority rule and expounds on the idea that individuals should prioritize their own moral judgment over legislated laws. This progression is coherent and structured, as it builds upon the initial premise of majority rule and leads to the conclusion that a corporation of conscientious individuals embodies the true essence of conscience. Throughout the passage, Thoreau maintains a thematic and logical thread, ensuring the paragraph’s coherence.

Suggested Readings

• Connors, Robert J. The Erasure of the Sentence . Southern Illinois University Press, 2000.
• Flower, Linda, and John R. Hayes. A Cognitive Process Theory of Writing . Southern Illinois University Press, 1981.
• Halliday, M. A. K., and Ruqaiya Hasan. Cohesion in English . Longman, 1976.
• Kolln, Martha, and Loretta Gray. Rhetorical Grammar: Grammatical Choices, Rhetorical Effects . Pearson, 2016.
• Williams, Joseph M. Style: Ten Lessons in Clarity and Grace . Pe arson, 2017.
• Zinsser, William. On Writing Well: The Classic Guide to Writing Nonfiction . HarperCollins, 2006.

Related posts:

• Onomatopoeia: A Literary Device

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Pasco-Hernando State College

• Unity and Coherence in Essays
• The Writing Process
• Paragraphs and Essays
• Proving the Thesis/Critical Thinking
• Appropriate Language

Test Yourself

• Essay Organization Quiz
• Sample Essay - Fairies
• Sample Essay - Modern Technology

Related Pages

• Proving the Thesis

Unity is the idea that all parts of the writing work to achieve the same goal: proving the thesis. Just as the content of a paragraph should focus on a topic sentence, the content of an essay must focus on the thesis.  The introduction paragraph introduces the thesis, the body paragraphs each have a proof point (topic sentence) with content that proves the thesis, and the concluding paragraph sums up the proof and restates the thesis. Extraneous information in any part of the essay that is not related to the thesis is distracting and takes away from the strength of proving the thesis.

An essay must have coherence. The sentences must flow smoothly and logically from one to the next as they support the purpose of each paragraph in proving the thesis.

Just as the last sentence in a paragraph must connect back to the topic sentence of the paragraph, the last paragraph of the essay should connect back to the thesis by reviewing the proof and restating the thesis.

Example of Essay with Problems of Unity and Coherence

Here is an example of a brief essay that includes a paragraph that does not support the thesis “Many people are changing their diets to be healthier.”

     People are concerned about pesticides, steroids, and antibiotics in the food they eat.  Many now shop for organic foods since they don’t have the pesticides used in conventionally grown food.  Meat from chicken and cows that are not given steroids or antibiotics are gaining popularity even though they are much more expensive. More and more, people are eliminating pesticides, steroids, and antibiotics from their diets.     Eating healthier also is beneficial to the environment since there are less pesticides poisoning the earth. Pesticides getting into the waterways is creating a problem with drinking water.  Historically, safe drinking water has been a problem. It is believed the Ancient Egyptians drank beer since the water was not safe to drink.  Brewing beer killed the harmful organisms and bacteria in the water from the Nile. There is a growing concern about eating genetically modified foods, and people are opting for non-GMO diets.  Some people say there are more allergic reactions and other health problems resulting from these foods.  Others are concerned because there are no long-term studies that clearly show no adverse health effects such as cancers or other illnesses. Avoiding GMO food is another way people are eating healthier food.

See how just one paragraph can take away from the effectiveness of the essay in showing how people are changing to healthier food since unity and coherence are affected. There is no longer unity among all the paragraphs. The thought pattern is disjointed and the essay loses its coherence.

Transitions and Logical Flow of Ideas

Transitions are words, groups of words, or sentences that connect one sentence to another or one paragraph to another.

They promote a logical flow from one idea to the next and overall unity and coherence.

While transitions are not needed in every sentence or at the end of every paragraph, they are missed when they are omitted since the flow of thoughts becomes disjointed or even confusing.

There are different types of transitions:

• Time – before, after, during, in the meantime, nowadays
• Space – over, around, under
• Examples – for instance, one example is
• Comparison – on the other hand, the opposing view
• Consequence – as a result, subsequently

These are just a few examples.  The idea is to paint a clear, logical connection between sentences and between paragraphs.

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Coherence and Cohesion: Essential Skills for Effective Essay Writing

Coherence and cohesion are essential elements of effective essay writing. Coherence refers to the logical flow and clarity of ideas in an essay, ensuring that each part connects smoothly to the next. Cohesion involves the use of linking words and phrases to tie sentences and paragraphs together, making the text easy to follow. These skills help create a well-organized essay that is easy to read and understand. Improving these techniques is crucial for achieving higher grades and effective communication in IELTS essay writing tasks or academic writing .

The Importance of Coherence in Essay Writing

Coherence is crucial in essay writing as it ensures that the ideas presented flow logically and are easy to understand. Without coherence, an essay can become disjointed and confusing, making it difficult for readers to follow the writer's train of thought. When an essay lacks coherence, readers may struggle to make sense of the arguments or information presented, leading to a loss of interest and engagement.

To achieve coherence, writers must ensure that each paragraph builds upon the previous one and leads into the next. This can be done by using transitional words and phrases that signal the relationship between ideas. Additionally, writers should structure their essays in a logical manner, presenting information in a clear and organized way. By maintaining coherence, writers can guide readers through their essays effortlessly, allowing them to fully grasp the intended message.

Techniques for Achieving Coherence in Essays

There are several techniques that writers can employ to achieve coherence in their essays. One effective technique is the use of topic sentences at the beginning of each paragraph. A topic sentence provides a clear focus for the paragraph and helps the reader understand how it relates to the overall argument. By starting each paragraph with a topic sentence, writers can ensure that their ideas are presented in a coherent and logical manner.

Another technique for achieving coherence is the use of transitional words and phrases . These words and phrases act as signposts, guiding the reader through the essay and indicating the relationship between ideas. Examples of transitional words and phrases include "however," "in addition," and "on the other hand." By incorporating these words and phrases, writers can create smooth transitions between paragraphs and ensure that their arguments are presented in a cohesive manner.

Furthermore, writers should also pay attention to the organization and structure of their essays. By arranging information in a logical sequence, writers can help readers follow the flow of ideas more easily. This can be achieved through the use of headings, subheadings, and bullet points to provide a clear and organized structure. Additionally, writers should ensure that each paragraph focuses on a single main idea and that supporting details are presented in a logical order.

The Role of Cohesion in Essay Writing

While coherence focuses on the overall flow and clarity of ideas in an essay, cohesion is concerned with the internal connections between sentences and paragraphs. Cohesion ensures that the various parts of an essay are linked together, creating a unified and cohesive piece of writing. Without cohesion, an essay can feel disjointed and difficult to follow, making it challenging for readers to fully grasp the writer's message.

While coherence focuses on the overall flow and clarity of ideas in an essay, cohesion is concerned with the internal connections between sentences and paragraphs. Cohesion ensures that the various parts of an essay are linked together, creating a unified and cohesive piece of writing. Without cohesion, an essay can feel disjointed and difficult to follow, making it challenging for readers to fully grasp the writer's message. Utilizing transitional words effectively can enhance cohesion, and a solid understanding of parts of speech and using grammatically correct sentences is essential for constructing clear and connected sentences. These elements work together to create a well-organized and persuasive essay.

One way to achieve cohesion is through the use of cohesive devices, such as pronouns , conjunctions , and transitional expressions. These devices help establish connections between sentences and paragraphs, making the text more coherent. For example, the use of pronouns like "it" or "this" can refer back to a previously mentioned idea, providing continuity and clarity.

Additionally, writers can create cohesion by using repetition of key words or phrases throughout their essays. This repetition helps reinforce important ideas and themes, making the essay more cohesive. However, it is important to use repetition judiciously and not overdo it, as excessive repetition can become monotonous and detract from the overall quality of the writing.

Strategies for Creating Cohesion in Essays

Creating cohesion in essays requires careful attention to the use of linking words and phrases. These words and phrases act as bridges, connecting ideas and ensuring a smooth flow of information. Some commonly used linking words and phrases include "however," "therefore," "in contrast," and "for example." By incorporating these expressions, writers can create clear connections between sentences and paragraphs, enhancing the overall cohesion of their essays.

Another strategy for creating cohesion is the use of parallel structure. Parallel structure involves using the same grammatical form for similar ideas or elements within a sentence or paragraph. This technique helps create a sense of balance and harmony, making the text more cohesive. For example, a writer might use parallel structure by starting a series of points with phrases like "firstly," "secondly," and "finally."

Additionally, writers should be mindful of the use of pronouns and other cohesive devices to maintain cohesion. Pronouns such as "he," "she," or "it" can refer back to previously mentioned nouns , reducing repetition and improving the overall flow of the text. Furthermore, the use of transitional expressions like "in conclusion," "on the other hand," and "as a result" can signal shifts in ideas and help maintain cohesion throughout the essay.

Common Mistakes to Avoid in Coherence and Cohesion

While coherence and cohesion are crucial for effective essay writing, there are common mistakes that writers should avoid. One common mistake is the lack of clear and logical organization. Without a well-structured essay, readers may become confused and lose interest in the writer's arguments. To avoid this, writers should carefully plan and outline their essays before writing, ensuring that each paragraph serves a specific purpose and contributes to the overall coherence of the essay.

Another mistake is the overuse or misuse of transitional words and phrases. While these expressions are essential for creating cohesion, excessive or incorrect use can hinder the readability of an essay. Writers should use transitional words and phrases judiciously, ensuring that they are used appropriately and contribute to the overall clarity of the text.

Additionally, writers should avoid excessive repetition of words or ideas. While some repetition can be useful for reinforcing key points, too much repetition can make an essay monotonous and reduce its overall coherence and cohesion. Writers should strive to use a variety of vocabulary and sentence structures to keep the essay engaging and interesting.

Examples of Well-Cohesive and Coherent Essays

To better understand the importance of coherence and cohesion in essay writing, let's look at some examples of well-cohesive and coherent essays. In a well-written essay, each paragraph should flow smoothly into the next, with clear connections between ideas. Transitional words and phrases should be used effectively to guide the reader through the essay. Additionally, the essay should have a clear structure and logical organization, allowing the reader to easily follow the writer's arguments.

For example, consider an essay about the “benefits of exercise”. In a well-cohesive and coherent essay, the writer might start with an introduction that presents the thesis statement and provides an overview of the main points. Each subsequent paragraph would then focus on a specific benefit of exercise, such as improved cardiovascular health, increased energy levels, and reduced stress. The writer would use transitional words and phrases to link these paragraphs together, creating a cohesive and coherent essay.

If you want to see examples of essays that are well-structured and coherent, and learn how to write them, please visit the link below and explore different essays, research papers, and sample papers.

How Coherence and Cohesion Affect Essay Readability

Coherence and cohesion greatly impact the readability of an essay. When an essay lacks coherence, readers may struggle to follow the writer's arguments and lose interest in the topic. Similarly, without cohesion, an essay can feel disjointed and confusing, making it difficult for readers to understand the writer's message.

On the other hand, a well-cohesive and coherent essay is easy to read and understand. The logical flow of ideas and clear connections between sentences and paragraphs make the text more engaging and enjoyable to read. Readers can follow the writer's arguments effortlessly, allowing them to fully grasp the intended message and appreciate the essay's content.

Tips for Improving Coherence and Cohesion in Essay Writing

Improving coherence and cohesion in essay writing requires practice and attention to detail. Here are some tips to improve these essential skills:

Plan and outline your essay before writing. This will help you organize your thoughts and ensure a logical flow of ideas.

Use topic sentences at the beginning of each paragraph to provide a clear focus and guide the reader through the essay.

Incorporate transitional words and phrases to create smooth transitions between sentences and paragraphs.

Pay attention to the overall structure and organization of your essay. Use headings, subheadings, and bullet points to provide a clear and organized structure.

Be mindful of parallel structure to create a sense of balance and harmony within your sentences and paragraphs.

Use pronouns and other cohesive devices to maintain continuity and reduce repetition.

Read your essay aloud or have someone else read it to identify any areas where coherence and cohesion can be improved.

By incorporating these tips into your essay writing process, you can enhance the coherence and cohesion of your essays, making them more effective and engaging.

Coherence and cohesion are essential skills for effective essay writing. Coherence ensures that the ideas presented in an essay flow logically and are easy to understand, while cohesion creates connections between sentences and paragraphs, making the text cohesive and unified. By improving these skills, writers can clearly convey their ideas and arguments, making their essays more persuasive and enjoyable to read. Improving coherence and cohesion in essay writing requires practice and attention to detail, but the effort is worthwhile for achieving higher grades and effective communication. So, next time you sit down to write an essay, remember the importance of coherence and cohesion to create a well-organized and engaging piece of writing.

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11 Unity & Coherence

Preserving unity.

Academic essays need unity, which means that all of the ideas in an essay need to relate to the thesis, and all of the ideas in a paragraph need to relate to the paragraph’s topic. It can be easy to get “off track” and start writing about an idea that is somewhat related to your main idea, but does not directly connect to your main point.

All of the sentences in a paragraph should stay “on track;” that is, they should connect to the topic. One way to preserve unity in a paragraph is to start with a topic sentence that shows the main idea of the paragraph. Then, make sure each sentence in the paragraph relates to that main idea.

If you find a sentence that goes off track, perhaps you need to start a separate paragraph to write more about that different idea. Each paragraph should generally have only one main idea.

As you pre-write and draft an essay, try to pause occasionally. Go back to the assignment prompt and re-read it to make sure you are staying on topic. Use the prompt to guide your essay; make sure you are addressing all of the questions. Do not just re-state the words in the prompt. Instead, respond to the questions with your own ideas, in your own words, and make sure everything connects to the prompt and your thesis.

Activity A ~ Finding Breaks in Unity

Consider the following paragraphs. Is there a topic sentence? If so, do all of the other sentences relate to the topic sentence? Can you find any sentences that don’t relate?

     The planned community of Columbia, Maryland, was designed as a city open to all, regardless of race, level of income, or religion. When Columbia began in 1967, many cities in the U.S. did not allow people of certain races to rent or buy homes. Its developer, James W. Rouse, wanted to build a new city that had fair and open housing options for everyone. HCC has a building named for James W. Rouse. Today, the city’s nearly 100,000 remain diverse, as shown by recent census data. *****

    College can be expensive and difficult. Critical thinking is a very important skill for college students to develop so that they can be successful in their careers. Employers look for graduates who can understand information, analyze data, and solve problems. They also want employees who can think creatively and communicate their ideas clearly. College students need to practice these skills in all of their classes so that they can demonstrate their abilities to potential employers. ***** Bananas are one of Americans’ favorite types of fruit. The Cavendish variety, grown in Central and South America, is the most commonly sold here in the U.S. Recent problems with a fungus called Panama disease (or TR4), however, have led to a shortage of Cavendish bananas. Similar problems occurred a few years ago in parts of Asia and the Middle East. Because the fungus kills the crop and contaminates the soil, scientists are concerned that the popular Cavendish banana could be completely eradicated. Bananas contain many nutrients, including potassium and Vitamin B6. *****

Whether you choose to include a topic sentence or not, all of the sentences in your paragraph need to relate to the one main idea of the paragraph.

Another way to think about unity in a paragraph is to imagine your family tree. Draw a quick sketch of your family tree in your notebook. If you were writing an essay about your family, you might write a paragraph about close family members first. Next, you might branch out into another paragraph to write about more distant relatives. You might even include a paragraph about very close family friends, or pets. Each paragraph would have just one main idea (immediate family, more distant relatives, close family friends), and every sentence in each paragraph would relate to that main idea.

Activity B ~ Preserving Unity in Your Own Writing

Examine a composition that you have written for this class. Do all of your paragraphs have unity? Can you find any sentences that don’t relate to the topic of each paragraph? Exchange papers with a partner to peer review.

Ensuring Coherence

There are several ways to create connections between ideas in your essay. Here are some suggestions:

1. Repeat key words and phrases. This can be a powerful way to make a point. Consider this excerpt from Rev. Martin Luther King’s famous “I Have a Dream” speech at the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, in which he uses parallel structure :

I say to you today, my friends, so even though we face the difficulties of today and tomorrow, I still have a dream. It is a dream deeply rooted in the American dream. I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal.” I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia, the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood. I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a state sweltering with the heat of injustice, sweltering with the heat of oppression, will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice. I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. I have a dream today.

2. Use synonyms , as in this example, where King uses both repetition (“Let freedom ring”) and synonyms (for “mountains”):

And if America is to be a great nation, this must become true. So let freedom ring from the prodigious hilltops of New Hampshire. Let freedom ring from the mighty mountains of New York. Let freedom ring from the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania. Let freedom ring from the snow-capped Rockies of Colorado. Let freedom ring from the curvaceous slopes of California. But not only that: Let freedom ring from Stone Mountain of Georgia. Let freedom ring from Lookout Mountain of Tennessee. Let freedom ring from every hill and molehill of Mississippi. From every mountainside, let freedom ring.

3. Use pronouns to refer to antecedents , as King does here; this can be more elegant than just repeating the key words and phrases:

I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character.

4. Use demonstratives ( this, that, these, those ) as adjectives or pronouns, as King does here:

I say to you today, my friends, so even though we face the difficulties of today and tomorrow, I still have a dream. It is a dream deeply rooted in the American dream. I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal.”…. This is our hope. This is the faith that I go back to the South with. With this faith we will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope. With this faith we will be able to transform the jangling discords of our nation into a beautiful symphony of brotherhood.  

Questions to Ponder

Pause for a moment here to think about the examples above. Think about audience, purpose, and context of an academic essay. Would you use the techniques for coherence in the same way that Dr. King did in his speech, or would you use the techniques in a different way? Discuss with a small group.

5. Use transitions. Transition words and phrases will help you to make sure your essay has coherence. Also called signal words/phrases or signposts, these help to guide your readers.

Transitions connect your related ideas; they can also show your reader that you are starting a new topic, giving an example, adding information, explaining causes and effects, and so on. Using the correct transition word or phrase in a sentence can make your writing much clearer. Try the activity below to think of possible transitions.

Activity C ~ Transition Words & Phrases

With your partner, brainstorm a list of transition words and phrases for each of the categories below.

Can you think of other transition words and phrases? What other categories do they belong to?

After you have completed these activities with your partner, consult  Transition Words & Phrases ~ Useful Lists for more on compare/contrast, addition, cause/effect, and other transitions to try.

Activity D ~ Ensuring Coherence in Your Own Writing

Examine a composition that you have written for this class for coherence. Find and mark examples of places where you used repetition, synonyms, pronouns or demonstratives to build connections between ideas.

Underline your transition words and phrases. Did you use the strongest signal words? Can you find examples where you need to add a transition? Or, did you use too many transitions? Exchange papers with a partner to peer review.

Consult our chapter on Transitions for more inspiration on achieving coherence and cohesion in your writing. Challenge yourself to use some new transitions in your next composition.

Is this chapter:

…about right, but you would like more examples? –> Read “ Cohesion and Coherence ” from George Mason University’s Writing Center.

…too easy, or you would like more examples? –> Read “ ESL: Coherence and Cohesion ” from the Writing & Communication Center at the University of Washington/Bothell

Note: links open in new tabs.

King, Martin Luther, Jr. “I Have a Dream.” March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. 28 August 1963. Washington, D.C. Speech.

to start to do something different

short piece or sample, for example a direct quote in writing or a few measures of a musical composition

to think about

ENGLISH 087: Academic Advanced Writing Copyright © 2020 by Nancy Hutchison is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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What is cohesion?

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Transition signals

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Cohesion How to make texts stick together

Cohesion and coherence are important features of academic writing. They are one of the features tested in exams of academic English, including the IELTS test and the TOEFL test . This page gives information on what cohesion is and how to achieve good cohesion. It also explains the difference between cohesion and coherence , and how to achieve good coherence. There is also an example essay to highlight the main features of cohesion mentioned in this section, as well as some exercises to help you practise.

For another look at the same content, check out YouTube or Youku , or the infographic .

It is important for the parts of a written text to be connected together. Another word for this is cohesion . This word comes from the verb cohere , which means 'to stick together'. Cohesion is therefore related to ensuring that the words and sentences you use stick together.

Good cohesion is achieved through the following five main methods, each of which is described in more detail below:

• repeated words/ideas
• reference words
• transition signals
• substitution

Two other ways in which cohesion is achieved in a text, which are covered less frequently in academic English courses, are shell nouns and thematic development . These are also considered below.

Repeated words/ideas

Check out the cohesion infographic »

One way to achieve cohesion is to repeat words, or to repeat ideas using different words (synonyms). Study the following example. Repeated words (or synonyms) are shown in bold.

Cohesion is an important feature of academic writing . It can help ensure that your writing coheres or 'sticks together', which will make it easier for the reader to follow the main ideas in your essay or report . You can achieve good cohesion by paying attention to five important features . The first of these is repeated words. The second key feature is reference words. The third one is transition signals. The fourth is substitution. The final important aspect is ellipsis.

In this example, the word cohesion is used several times, including as a verb ( coheres ). It is important, in academic writing, to avoid too much repetition, so using different word forms or synonyms is common. The word writing is also used several times, including the phrase essay or report , which is a synonym for writing . The words important features are also repeated, again using synonyms: key feature , important aspect .

Reference words

Reference words are words which are used to refer to something which is mentioned elsewhere in the text, usually in a preceding sentence. The most common type is pronouns, such as 'it' or 'this' or 'these'. Study the previous example again. This time, the reference words are shown in bold.

Cohesion is an important feature of academic writing. It can help ensure that your writing coheres or 'sticks together', which will make it easier for the reader to follow the main ideas in your essay or report. You can achieve good cohesion by paying attention to five important features. The first of these is repeated words. The second key feature is reference words. The third one is transition signals. The fourth is substitution. The final important aspect is ellipsis.

The words it , which and these are reference words. The first two of these, it and which , both refer to 'cohesion' used in the preceding sentence. The final example, these , refers to 'important features', again used in the sentence that precedes it.

Transition signals, also called cohesive devices or linking words, are words or phrases which show the relationship between ideas. There are many different types, the most common of which are explained in the next section on transition signals . Some examples of transition signals are:

• for example - used to give examples
• in contrast - used to show a contrasting or opposite idea
• first - used to show the first item in a list
• as a result - used to show a result or effect

Study the previous example again. This time, the transition signals are shown in bold. Here the transition signals simply give a list, relating to the five important features: first , second , third , fourth , and final .

Substitution

Substitution means using one or more words to replace (substitute) for one or more words used earlier in the text. Grammatically, it is similar to reference words, the main difference being that substitution is usually limited to the clause which follows the word(s) being substituted, whereas reference words can refer to something far back in the text. The most common words used for substitution are one , so , and auxiliary verbs such as do, have and be . The following is an example.

• Drinking alcohol before driving is illegal in many countries, since doing so can seriously impair one's ability to drive safely.

In this sentence, the phrase 'doing so' substitutes for the phrase 'drinking alcohol before driving' which appears at the beginning of the sentence.

Below is the example used throughout this section. There is just one example of substitution: the word one , which substitutes for the phrase 'important features'.

Ellipsis means leaving out one or more words, because the meaning is clear from the context. Ellipsis is sometimes called substitution by zero , since essentially one or more words are substituted with no word taking their place.

Below is the example passage again. There is one example of ellipsis: the phrase 'The fourth is', which means 'The fourth [important feature] is', so the words 'important feature' have been omitted.

Shell nouns

Shell nouns are abstract nouns which summarise the meaning of preceding or succeeding information. This summarising helps to generate cohesion. Shell nouns may also be called carrier nouns , signalling nouns , or anaphoric nouns . Examples are: approach, aspect, category, challenge, change, characteristics, class, difficulty, effect, event, fact, factor, feature, form, issue, manner, method, problem, process, purpose, reason, result, stage, subject, system, task, tendency, trend, and type . They are often used with pronouns 'this', 'these', 'that' or 'those', or with the definite article 'the'. For example:

• Virus transmission can be reduced via frequent washing of hands, use of face masks, and isolation of infected individuals. These methods , however, are not completely effective and transmission may still occur, especially among health workers who have close contact with infected individuals.
• An increasing number of overseas students are attending university in the UK. This trend has led to increased support networks for overseas students.

In the example passage used throughout this section, the word features serves as a shell noun, summarising the information later in the passage.

Cohesion is an important feature of academic writing. It can help ensure that your writing coheres or 'sticks together', which will make it easier for the reader to follow the main ideas in your essay or report. You can achieve good cohesion by paying attention to five important features . The first of these is repeated words. The second key feature is reference words. The third one is transition signals. The fourth is substitution. The final important aspect is ellipsis.

Thematic development

Cohesion can also be achieved by thematic development. The term theme refers to the first element of a sentence or clause. The development of the theme in the rest of the sentence is called the rheme . It is common for the rheme of one sentence to form the theme of the next sentence; this type of organisation is often referred to as given-to-new structure, and helps to make writing cohere.

Consider the following short passage, which is an extension of the first example above.

• Virus transmission can be reduced via frequent washing of hands, use of face masks, and isolation of infected individuals. These methods, however, are not completely effective and transmission may still occur, especially among health workers who have close contact with infected individuals. It is important for such health workers to pay particular attention to transmission methods and undergo regular screening.

Here we have the following pattern:

• Virus transmission [ theme ]
• can be reduced via frequent washing of hands, use of face masks, and isolation of infected individuals [ rheme ]
• These methods [ theme = rheme of preceding sentence ]
• are not completely effective and transmission may still occur, especially among health workers who have close contact with infected individuals [ rheme ]
• health workers [ theme, contained in rheme of preceding sentence ]
• [need to] to pay particular attention to transmission methods and undergo regular screening [ rheme ]

Cohesion vs. coherence

The words 'cohesion' and 'coherence' are often used together with a similar meaning, which relates to how a text joins together to make a unified whole. Although they are similar, they are not the same. Cohesion relates to the micro level of the text, i.e. the words and sentences and how they join together. Coherence , in contrast, relates to the organisation and connection of ideas and whether they can be understood by the reader, and as such is concerned with the macro level features of a text, such as topic sentences , thesis statement , the summary in the concluding paragraph (dealt with in the essay structure section), and other 'bigger' features including headings such as those used in reports .

Coherence can be improved by using an outline before writing (or a reverse outline , which is an outline written after the writing is finished), to check that the ideas are logical and well organised. Asking a peer to check the writing to see if it makes sense, i.e. peer feedback , is another way to help improve coherence in your writing.

Example essay

Below is an example essay. It is the one used in the persuasion essay section. Click on the different areas (in the shaded boxes to the right) to highlight the different cohesive aspects in this essay, i.e. repeated words/ideas, reference words, transition signals, substitution and ellipsis.

Title: Consider whether human activity has made the world a better place.

History shows that human beings have come a long way from where they started. They have developed new technologies which means that everybody can enjoy luxuries they never previously imagined. However , the technologies that are temporarily making this world a better place to live could well prove to be an ultimate disaster due to , among other things, the creation of nuclear weapons , increasing pollution , and loss of animal species . The biggest threat to the earth caused by modern human activity comes from the creation of nuclear weapons . Although it cannot be denied that countries have to defend themselves, the kind of weapons that some of them currently possess are far in excess of what is needed for defence . If these [nuclear] weapons were used, they could lead to the destruction of the entire planet . Another harm caused by human activity to this earth is pollution . People have become reliant on modern technology, which can have adverse effects on the environment . For example , reliance on cars causes air and noise pollution . Even seemingly innocent devices, such as computers and mobile phones, use electricity, most of which is produced from coal-burning power stations, which further adds to environmental pollution . If we do not curb our direct and indirect use of fossil fuels, the harm to the environment may be catastrophic. Animals are an important feature of this earth and the past decades have witnessed the extinction of a considerable number of animal species . This is the consequence of human encroachment on wildlife habitats, for example deforestation to expand cities. Some may argue that such loss of [animal]   species is natural and has occurred throughout earth's history. However , the current rate of [animal]   species loss far exceeds normal levels   [of animal species loss] , and is threatening to become a mass extinction event. In summary , there is no doubt that current human activities such as the creation of nuclear weapons , pollution , and destruction of wildlife , are harmful to the earth . It is important for us to see not only the short-term effects of our actions, but their long-term ones as well. Otherwise , human activities will be just another step towards destruction .

Aktas, R.N. and Cortes, V. (2008), 'Shell nouns as cohesive devices in published and ESL student writing', Journal of English for Academic Purposes , 7 (2008) 3-14.

Alexander, O., Argent, S. and Spencer, J. (2008) EAP Essentials: A teacher's guide to principles and practice . Reading: Garnet Publishing Ltd.

Gray, B. (2010) 'On the use of demonstrative pronouns and determiners as cohesive devices: A focus on sentence-initial this/these in academic prose', Journal of English for Academic Purposes , 9 (2010) 167-183.

Halliday, M. A. K., and Hasan, R. (1976). Cohesion in English . London: Longman.

Hinkel, E. (2004). Teaching Academic ESL Writing: Practical Techniques in Vocabulary and Grammar . Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc Publishers.

Hyland, K. (2006) English for Academic Purposes: An advanced resource book . Abingdon: Routledge.

Thornbury, S. (2005) Beyond the Sentence: Introducing discourse analysis . Oxford: Macmillan Education.

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Below is a checklist for essay cohesion and coherence. Use it to check your own writing, or get a peer (another student) to help you.

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• Paraphrasing

Exercises & Activities Some ways to practise this area of EAP

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Author: Sheldon Smith    ‖    Last modified: 03 February 2022.

Sheldon Smith is the founder and editor of EAPFoundation.com. He has been teaching English for Academic Purposes since 2004. Find out more about him in the about section and connect with him on Twitter , Facebook and LinkedIn .

Compare & contrast essays examine the similarities of two or more objects, and the differences.

Cause & effect essays consider the reasons (or causes) for something, then discuss the results (or effects).

Discussion essays require you to examine both sides of a situation and to conclude by saying which side you favour.

Problem-solution essays are a sub-type of SPSE essays (Situation, Problem, Solution, Evaluation).

Transition signals are useful in achieving good cohesion and coherence in your writing.

Reporting verbs are used to link your in-text citations to the information cited.

How Coherence in Writing Facilitates Manuscript Acceptance

Coherence is an essential quality for good academic writing . In academic writing, the flow of ideas from one sentence to the next should be smooth and logical. Without cohesion, the reader will not understand the main points that you are trying to make. It also hampers readability. Cohesion necessarily precedes coherence. There is a difference between cohesion and coherence: cohesion is achieved when sentences are connected at the sentence level, whereas as coherence is achieved when ideas are connected. In addition, cohesion focuses on the grammar and style of your paper.

What is Coherence in Writing?

Coherence also means “clarity of expression” and it is created when correct vocabulary and grammar are used. After all, the goal of writing is to benefit the readers. Without both coherence and cohesion, the readers may detect choppiness in the text and feel as if there are gaps in the ideas presented. Needless to say, texts without coherence are difficult to read and understand. It defeats the whole purpose of writing, which is to relay ideas in a clear and efficient manner. There are strategies that you can use to ensure coherence and cohesion in academic writing.

Examples of Cohesive and Non-Cohesive Paragraphs

Paragraph coherence and cohesion results in paragraph unity . To ensure that your paragraphs have unity, there are two things to keep in mind: it must have a single topic (found in the topic sentence) and sentences provide more detail than the topic sentence, while maintaining the focus on the idea presented. The paragraph below shows a lack of unity:

Non-cohesive sample: Dogs are canines that people domesticated a long time ago. Wolves are predecessors of dogs and they help people in a variety of ways. There are various reasons for owning a dog, and the most important is companionship.

Cohesive sample: Dogs are canines that people domesticated a long time ago, primarily for practical reasons. Even though dogs descended from wolves, they are tame and can be kept in households. Since they are tame, people have various reasons for owning a dog, such as companionship.

Notice that the ideas in the non-cohesive sample are not arranged logically. The sentences are not connected by transitions and give the readers new ideas that are not found in the topic sentence. Thus, the paragraph is hard to read, leaving readers confused about the topic. On the other hand, the cohesive sample has ideas arranged logically. All ideas in this sample flow from the topic sentence. In addition, they give more details about the topic while maintaining their focus on the topic sentence.

Establishing Coherence

It is important to focus on coherence when writing at the sentence level. However, cohesion smoothens the flow of writing and should be established. There are various ways to ensure coherent writing :

• Write sentences that flow by varying the lengths and structures, the use of correct punctuation, and broadening your word choices
• Use simple transitions, such as “in addition, additionally, furthermore, therefore, thus, on the contrary, by the same token, at the same time, in other words, etc.”
• Repeat your keywords but be careful of excessive repetition
• Repeat sentence structures, which is used as a rhetorical technique rather than cohesion to highlight parallelism between sentences
• Ensure thematic consistency
• Start every sentence or paragraph with information that hints at the content of the next sentence

Academic writing is improved by coherence and cohesion. Without coherence and cohesion, readers will become confused and eventually disinterested in the article.  Your ideas then become lost and the primary objective of writing is not achieved.

Tips and Strategies

There are six ways for creating coherence, which you will find useful while polishing your manuscript. Creating coherence is not as difficult as it seems, but you will need the right tools and strategies to achieve it.

• >Lexis creates cohesion using synonyms, hyponyms, and superordinates. The use of lexical chains creates variety in writing and avoids monotony.
• Reference creates cohesion by using possessive pronouns (e.g. your, their, etc.), pronouns (e.g. she, me, etc.), and determiners (e.g. those, these, etc.).
• Substitution, which is the use of a different word in place of a previously mentioned word (e.g. “I bought a designer bag today. She did the same.”)
• Ellipsis is the removal or omission of words because their meaning is implied through context (e.g. “He goes to yoga classes in the afternoon. I hope I can too.”)
• Cohesive nouns are also called umbrella nouns because they summarize many words in one.
• Conjunctions include words that list ideas (e.g. first, next, then, lastly, etc.)

Academic writing should be concise, coherent, and cohesive. Maintaining these three qualities involves using a number of strategies to impart ideas to the reader. After all, that is the whole point of any type of writing.

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Module 8: Revising a Research Paper

Writing coherently, learning objectives.

• Define coherence in terms of writing
• Identify strategies to revise your argument for coherence

The term “coherence” comes from the verb “to cohere,” which means “to be united,” “to form a whole,” or “to be logically consistent”.

Coherence in writing refers to the big picture of a text. How can you construct an essay or research paper to create a united, logically consistent whole?

The USDA’s controversial and now deprecated food pyramid.

Consider this example:

Micronutrients play a vital role in the maintenance of healthy skin and immune function.  Of course, nothing is better for healthy skin than sleep and proper hydration. Many Americans drink too little water every day. There has been a good deal of debate about the 8-glasses-of-water advice that many of us remember from growing up. Will this advice go the way of the food pyramid? As it turns out, the food pyramid does not represent a medically ideal diet. A number of health organizations have criticized the food pyramid’s advice, and some have even suggested that the food industry had far too great a role in its creation. It certainly wouldn’t be the first time the food industry has intervened in public health policy.

This passage is cohesive, meaning that one sentence flows from the next. But it’s not coherent. Why?

• The topics of the individual sentences vary widely. We go from hearing about micronutrients to sleep and hydration to recommended water intake to the food pyramid. If sentences (and paragraphs) in a piece of writing don’t share common topics and ideas, how is the reader supposed to understand what the piece is about?
• The paragraph lacks a topic sentence signaling its main idea or purpose. The first sentence sounds like it could be a topic sentence, but the paragraph doesn’t stay with micronutrients for long.

Overall, this paragraph illustrates the pitfalls of associative organization (healthy skin → water → nutrition advice→ food pyramid) and topic sentences that fail to live up to the promise they make to readers. Your reader will become disoriented, fail to see your point (if you have one), and walk away frustrated.

Revising for Coherence

A coherent text needs a strong, logical structure. To revise for coherence, you must first check the logic and flow of your draft to ensure readers can see the big picture you are trying to create.

Reverse Outlining

Let’s face it: the process of writing a draft can be hectic, messy, and confusing. Sometimes we don’t really know what we’ve written until the dust settles. Reverse outlining can help us see the overall structure of the draft, which often differs significantly from what we set out to write!

To write a reverse outline,

• Number each paragraph in your draft (write in the margin or use the comment feature in Docs or Word).
• In a separate document, write down these numbers, one per line.
• If you have trouble figuring out what the paragraph is about, make a note for yourself that the paragraph needs to be reworked.
• If the paragraph is has more than one main idea, make a note for yourself that it needs to be split in two.
• If you find a redundant paragraph that repeats a point made in another paragraph using different words, make a note to combine or differentiate the two paragraphs.
• If a paragraph doesn’t relate to the overall argument, make a note to revise or remove this paragraph.
• How does this sequence of topics help you achieve your purpose (or not)?
• Are any topics unnecessary or redundant?
• Are there any extended side-notes or rabbit-holes that risk confusing the reader?
• How could you revise and reorder paragraph topics to better accomplish your goals?

Compare the sequence of points in your reverse outline with your original outline (if you have one) to see where you diverged from your plan. Finally, you can create a new outline that represents the best possible sequence of points and revise your draft accordingly.

The following video describes reverse outlining, its benefits, and a technique you can use to reverse outline your draft.

Question Outlining

If you’re still not sure about the overall order of your argument, you can try writing an outline of questions:

• Create a new list of numbers corresponding to the paragraphs of your paper.
• For each paragraph, think about what question this paragraph is answering.
• Write this question down from the point of view of the audience.
• Does this sequence of questions reflect how a reasonable person might seek answers about your topic?
• How do the questions connect to one another?
• Does it make sense to answer some before others?
• Would it be beneficial to have these questions follow a more logical pattern of development (general to specific, or specific to general)?
• Food Pyramid. Provided by : USDA. Located at : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_pyramid_(nutrition)#/media/File:USDA_Food_Pyramid.gif . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
• Writing Coherently. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution

Coherence in Composition

Guiding the Reader to Understand a Piece of Writing or Speech

• An Introduction to Punctuation
• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

In composition , coherence refers to the meaningful connections that readers or listeners perceive in a written or oral text , often called linguistic or discourse coherence, and can occur on either the local or global level, depending on the audience and writer.

Coherence is directly increased by the amount of guidance a writer provides to the reader, either through context clues or through direct use of transitional phrases to direct the reader through an argument or narrative.

Word choice and sentence and paragraph structure influence the coherence of a written or spoken piece, but cultural knowledge, or understanding of the processes and natural orders on the local and global levels, can also serve as cohesive elements of writing. 

Guiding the Reader

It is important in composition to maintain the coherence of a piece by leading the reader or listener through the narrative or process by providing cohesive elements to the form. In "Marking Discourse Coherence," Uta Lenk states that the reader or listener's understanding of coherence "is influenced by the degree and kind of guidance given by the speaker: the more guidance is given, the easier it is for the hearer to establish the coherence according to the speaker's intentions."

Transitional words and phrases  like "therefore," "as a result," "because" and the like serve to move connect one posit to the next, either through cause and effect or correlation of data, while other transitional elements like combining and connecting sentences or repetition of keywords and structures can similarly guide the reader to make connections in tandem with their cultural knowledge of the topic.

Thomas S. Kane describes this cohesive element as "flow" in "The New Oxford Guide to Writing," wherein these "invisible links which bind the sentences of a paragraph can be established in two basic ways." The first, he says, is to establish a plan in the first of the paragraph and introduce each new idea with a word marking its place in this plan while the second concentrates on the successive linking of sentences to develop the plan through connecting each sentence to the one before it.

Constructing Coherence Relations

Coherence in composition and constructionist theory relies on a readers' local and global understanding of the written and spoken language, inferring the binding elements of text that help guide them through understanding the author's intentions. 

As Arthur C. Graesser, Peter Wiemer-Hasting and Katka Wiener-Hastings put it in "constructing Inferences and Relations During Text Comprehension," local coherence "is achieved if the reader can connect the incoming sentence to information in the previous sentence or to the content in working memory." On the other hand, global coherence comes from the major message or point of the structure of the sentence or from an earlier statement in the text. 

If not driven by these global or local understanding, the sentence is typically given coherence by explicit features like anaphoric references, connectives, predicates, signaling devices and transitional phrases. 

In any case, coherence is a mental process and the Coherence Principle accounts for "the fact that we do not communicate by verbal means only," according to Edda Weigand's "Language as Dialogue: From Rules to Principles." Ultimately, then, it comes down to the listener or leader's own comprehension skills, their interaction with the text, that influences the true coherence of a piece of writing.

• What Is Cohesion in Composition?
• Unity in Composition
• Learn About Précis Through Definition and Examples
• Definition and Examples of Transitional Paragraphs
• What Is an Echo Word?
• Definition Examples of Collage Essays
• Editing and Proofreading Marks in Composition
• Focusing in Composition
• The Four Master Tropes in Rhetoric
• English Phrasal Verbs: Definition
• Cue Word (or Phrase) in English
• Substitution in English Grammar
• Definition and Examples of Text Linguistics
• Paragraph Transition: Definition and Examples
• The Definition of a Review in Composition
• Definition and Examples of Body Paragraphs in Composition

writing@chalmers

Coherence & cohesion.

Coherence and cohesion are essential for aiding readability and idea communication.  Coherence is about the unity of the ideas and cohesion the unity of structural elements.  One way to do this is through the use of cohesive devices: logical bridges (repetition), verbal bridges (synonyms), linking words, and clear back referencing.  If these types of devices are missing in the text, it not only becomes more difficult to read the text, but also to understand its contents since the reader must guess how the various parts of the paragraph or text are connected, which will involve re-reading sentences or larger sections more than once.

With logical bridges, the same idea of a topic is carried over (repeated) from sentence to sentence, and successive sentences can be constructed in parallel form. With verbal bridges, key words or synonymous words can be repeated, pronouns can replace nouns and transition words (as shown below) can be used.   In the paragraph below, words and phrases that serve to increase the coherence of the paragraph are highlight and underlined. As this sample paragraph indicates, coherence and cohesion in a paragraph is established by combining more than one device.

A more direct way of emphasizing the inherent logic of a paragraph is through the use of linking words and phrases which mark transitions within and between sentences. The table below gives a sample of such linking words and groups them based on the connection they illustrate/indicate.

Back referencing is another effective device for creating coherence, but this device must be used carefully because it can cause confusion rather than create clarity. Consider whether or not the use of back referencing is clear in the following example.

It is perfectly acceptable to use back referencing, just be sure to make it clear. One way to do this, as exemplified in the remarks above, is to add a summary word to the back reference (e.g. this situation, where situation is the summary word). Using a summary word specifies the back reference, often making it much clearer.

Definition of Coherence

Coherence is a Latin word, meaning “to stick together.” In a composition, coherence is a literary technique that refers to logical connections, which listeners or readers perceive in an oral or written text. In other words, it is a written or spoken piece that is not only consistent and logical, but also unified and meaningful. It makes sense when read or listened to as a whole. The structure of a coherent paragraph could be general to particular and particular to general or any other format.

Types of Coherence

• Local Level Coherent Text In this type of text, coherence occurs within small portions of a passage or a text.
• Global level Coherent Text In this type of text, coherence takes place within the whole text of a story or essay , rather than in its few parts.

Examples of Coherence in Literature

Example #1:  one man’s meat (by e.b. white).

“Scientific agriculture, however sound in principle, often seems strangely unrelated to, and unaware of, the vital, grueling job of making a living by farming. Farmers sense this quality in it as they study their bulletins, just as a poor man senses in a rich man an incomprehension of his own problems. The farmer of today knows, for example, that manure loses some of its value when exposed to the weather … But he knows also that to make hay he needs settled weather – better weather than you usually get in June.”

This is a global level coherent text passage in which White has wonderfully unified the sentences to make it a whole. He has started the passage with a general topic, scientific agriculture, but moved it to a specific text about farmers and their roles.

Example #2:  A Tale of Two Cities (by Charles Dickens)

“The wine was red wine, and had stained the ground of the narrow street in the suburb of Saint Antoine, in Paris, where it was spilled. It had stained many hands, too, and many faces, and many naked feet, and many wooden shoes. The hands of the man who sawed the wood, left red marks on the billets; and the forehead of the woman who nursed her baby, was stained with the stain of the old rag she wound about her head again. Those who had been greedy with the staves of the cask … scrawled upon a wall with his finger dipped in muddy wine-lees—BLOOD.”

Taken from the novel, A Tale of Two Cities , this passage’s emphasis is on the idea of staining, and scrawling the word “blood,” which further brings coherence into the lines. The connection is thus made through the appearance of Wood-Sawyer, a man who scares Lucie later. This is how it achieves coherence.

Example #3:  Animal Farm (by George Orwell)

“Now, comrades, what is the nature of this life of ours? Let us face it: our lives are miserable, laborious, and short. We are born, we are given just so much food as will keep the breath in our bodies, and those of us who are capable of it are forced to work to the last atom of our strength … “No animal in England knows the meaning of happiness or leisure after he is a year old. The life of an animal is misery and slavery: that is the plain truth.”

Through the speech of the Old Major, Orwell starts the passage about the miserable nature of the life of animals on the animal farm, and then he inspires them to think about how to safeguard their interests on the farm. The entire paragraph is an example of coherent speech.

Example #4:  Unpopular Essays (by Bertrand Russell)

“The word “philosophy” is one of which the meaning is by no means fixed. Like the word “religion,” it has one sense when used to describe certain features of historical cultures, and another when used to denote a study or an attitude of mind which is considered desirable in the present day. Philosophy, as pursued in the universities of the Western democratic world, is, at least in intention, part of the pursuit of knowledge, aiming at the same kind of detachment as is sought in science …”

See how brilliantly Russell has connected the ideas of philosophy and politics, by moving from a general to a specific topic, with sentences connecting one to another, creating coherence.

Coherence links the sentences of a work with one another. This may be done with paragraphs, making sure that each statement logically connects with the one preceding it, making the text easier for the readers to understand and follow. Also, ordering thoughts in a sequence helps the reader to move from one point to the next smoothly. As all of the sentences relate back to the topic, the thoughts and ideas flow smoothly.

Paragraph Unity, Coherence, and Development

In each paragraph of an essay, one particular idea or topic is developed and explained. In order to successfully do so, however, it is essential that the paragraph be written in a unified and coherent manner. 

A unified paragraph must follow the idea mentioned in the topic sentence and must not deviate from it. For a further explanation on topic sentences, see the Write Right on Topic Sentences .

A coherent paragraph has sentences that all logically follow each other; they are not isolated thoughts. Coherence can be achieved in several ways. First, using transitions helps connect ideas from one sentence to the next. For more on transitions, see the Write Right on Transitions . Second, ordering thoughts in numerical sequence helps to direct the reader from one point to the next. Third, structuring each paragraph according to one of the following patterns helps to organize sentences: general to particular; particular to general; whole to parts; question to answer; or effect to cause. 

Remember that a paragraph should have enough sentences so that the main idea of the topic sentence is completely developed. Generalizations should be supported with examples or illustrations. Also, details and descriptions help the reader to understand what you mean. Don't ever assume that the reader can read your mind: be specific enough to develop your ideas thoroughly, but avoid repetition

An effective paragraph might look like this:

It is commonly recognized that dogs have an extreme antagonism toward cats. This enmity between these two species can be traced back to the time of the early Egyptian dynasties. Archaeologists in recent years have discovered Egyptian texts in which there are detailed accounts of canines brutally mauling felines. Today this type of cruelty between these two domestic pets can be witnessed in regions as close as your own neighborhood. For example, when dogs are walked by their masters (and they happen to catch sight of a stray cat), they will pull with all their strength on their leash until the master is forced to yield; the typical result is that a feline is chased up a tree. The hatred between dogs and cats has lasted for many centuries, so it is unlikely that this conflict will ever end.

This paragraph is effective for the following reasons:

• The paragraph shows unity. All the sentences effectively relate back to the topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph. 
• The paragraph shows coherence. There is a flow of thoughts and ideas among the sentences in this paragraph. There are good transitions employed in the paragraph. The writer also presents her sub-topics in an orderly fashion that the reader can follow easily.
• The paragraph is developed. The writer gives herself enough space to develop the topic. She gives us at least two reasons to accept her argument and incorporates some examples in order to give those reasons more validity.

Reference: Strunk, Wiliam Jr., and E. B. White. The Elements of Style . 4th ed., Allyn and Bacon, 2000.

Copyright © 2009 Wheaton College Writing Center

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Flow and Cohesion

• Reverse Outline
• Paper Skeleton
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Our Writing Center gets a lot of students who are concerned about the  flow  of their writing, but this can mean a lot of different things. When we talk about "flow" we mean  cohesion  or how ideas and relationships are communicated to readers. Flow can involve the  big-picture  (how parts of the essay fit together and the way the sequence of these parts affect how readers understand it) and the  sentence-level  (how the structure of a sentence affects the ways meanings and relationships come across to readers). This page has an overview of ways to think about revising the  flow  of an essay on both of these levels.

Big-Picture Revision Strategies

Reading out-loud.

Oftentimes, you can identify places that need some extra attention sharing your writing with a friend, or reading it out loud to yourself. For example, if it's hard to actually say a sentence at a normal conversational pace, this might indicate that there's something you can change about the structure that will make it easier to say (and probably, easier to understand). A few more tips:

• When you read out-loud, make sure to  slow down . If you are talking too fast, you might fill-in gaps or otherwise not notice things you want to change. You also want to give yourself time to process what you're saying  as you say it.
• If there's nobody around, there are also many computer programs that can convert text to speech and read to you, including  Microsoft Word .
• Take notes while you read. While you might want to fix things as you read, if you're worried about flow, it's also good to read your essay all the way through so that you can hear how parts fit together. If you don't want to interrupt your reading, you can take notes by doing things like putting a checkmark in the margins, using a highlighter, or making a list on a separate sheet of paper.

Structure and Sequence

Sometimes issues of flow and cohesion might actually be structural. It's good to reflect on the structure of an essay, the order of the different parts, and how they all fit together. If you want to revise the structure of your essay, consider trying one of the following activities.

Sign-Posting and Transitions

A great way to help readers comprehend the flow of ideas is include things like sign-posts and transitions. A sign-post is basically just language to point out different parts of the essay for readers in order to help them navigate your ideas. For example,  strong topic sentences  are a good as sign-posts because they tell readers what upcoming paragraphs are going to be about.  Transition sentences  can help readers understand how the ideas you were just discussing in a previous paragraph relate to what's coming up with the next paragraph. Here are a couple questions that can help you brainstorm sign-posting statements. After you brainstorm, you can then revise these sign-posting sentences so they fit better with your writing.

• Try starting a sentence by writing "In this paragraph, I will discuss..." After you complete this sentence, you can then revise it to make it fit better with your writing.
• "In the previous paragraph I discuss [purpose of paragraph 1] and this helps better understand [purpose of paragraph 2] because..."
• This paragraph supports my argument because..."
• While I discuss [previous idea or concept] above, I will now talk about [new idea or concept] because..."

Revision on the Sentence-Level

Verbs, or stuff we do.

A sentence seems clear when its important actions are in verbs. Compare these sentences where the actions are in bold and the verbs are UPPERCASE:

Because we  LACKED  data, we could not  EVALUATE  whether the UN  HAD TARGETED  funds to areas that most needed assistance. Our  lack  of data PREVENTED  evaluation  of UN  actions  in  targeting  funds to areas most in  need  of  assistance .

Nominalization

Turning a verb or adjective into a noun is called a “nominalization.” No element of style more characterizes turgid writing, writing that feels abstract, indirect, and difficult, than lots of nominalizations, especially as the subjects of verbs.  

Our request IS that you DO a review of the data.     vs. We REQUEST that you REVIEW the data.    

Try this:  when editing, underline the actions in your sentences.  Are those actions in the form of verbs?  If not, you might try rewriting your sentences to turn those actions into the main verbs in the sentence.

Active and Passive Verbs

Some critics of style tell us to avoid the passive everywhere because it adds a couple of words and often deletes the agent, the “doer” of the action.  But in fact, the passive is sometimes the better choice.  To choose between the active and passive, you have to answer two questions:

• The president  was rumored  to have considered resigning.
• Those who  are found  guilty can  be fined .
• Valuable records should always  be kept  in a safe.
• Because the test  was not done , the flaw  was not corrected .
• The weight given to industrial competitiveness as opposed to the value we attach to liberal arts   will determine  our decision.  
• Our decision  will be determined   by the weight we give to industrial competitiveness as opposed to the value we attach to the liberal arts .

Try this:   We need to find our passive verbs before we can evaluate whether or not to change them.  While you’re editing, try underlining all the “to be” verbs, since these are often paired with other verbs to make passive constructions.  The verbs you’re looking for are: am, are, is, was, were, be, become, became.  Once you’ve identified these verbs, check to see if they are necessary, or if the sentence would be clearer or stronger without them.  Example:  “There is one explanation in the story…” vs “The story explains…”

Writing is more coherent when readers are able to make connections across sentences and paragraphs. On the sentence level, this can include when the last few words of one set up information that appears in the first few words of the next.  That’s what gives us our experience of flow.

• Begin sentences with information familiar to your readers.  Readers get that information from two sources:  first, they remember words from the sentence they just read.  Second, readers bring to a sentence a general knowledge of its subject.  In a paper on black holes, for example, readers would find references to “astronomers”  familiar, even without prior mention.
• End sentences with information that readers cannot anticipate.  Readers prefer to read what’s easy before what’s hard, and what’s familiar and simple is easier to understand that what’ new and complex.  

Compare these two passages:

Try this:  While editing, check for these words: this, these, that, those, another, such, second, or more. Writers often refer to something in a previous sentence with these kinds of words. When you use any of those signals, try to put them at or close to the beginning of the sentence that you use them in.

Here are some tips to help your writing become more precise and cut out extra words.

• Delete what readers can infer.  This can include redundant categories like “period of time,” “pink in color,” or “shiny in appearance.

• Can you make sense of the negatives in this sentence?

Except when you have failed to submit applications without documentation, benefits will not be denied.

This handout contains excerpts from Joseph M. Williams'  Style: Ten Lessons in Clarity and Grace ( New York: Longman, 2000).

Unit 8: Academic Writing Resources

52 Transition Words for Cohesion and Coherence

Transition words and phrases.

Transition words and phrases are used to connect ideas together. They are used within paragraphs and between paragraphs to enhance the flow of ideas.

Below are some common expressions. Some are useful for connecting paragraphs while others are more appropriate for joining ideas within a sentence. The best way to learn which transition words can be used for which purposes is to pay attention to the way they are used in the texts you read.

Transition words in any given category are NOT synonyms, and often require different grammatical structures. Choose exactly the best word for your purposes (don’t just substitute). Use the Skell Corpus to check how these expressions are used in example sentences.

Additive Transitions

Function: to connect two ideas together by adding additional information

furthermore, moreover, in addition, also

admittedly, certainly, typically

in fact, indeed

first, second, third

Order of Importance Transitions

Function: to signal the importance of events

above all, first and foremost, more/most

importantly, significantly, primarily

a more important, the most important, the primary / main, the second most significant

Contrastive Transitions

Function: to signal a contradiction or difference

however, nevertheless, in contrast, on the other hand

although, even though, whereas, while

despite, in spite of, compared to/with

Comparative Transitions

Function: to emphasize similarity

likewise, similarly, at the same time

by comparison, in much the same way, once again

Cause and Effect Transitions

Function: to signal that one event happens as a result of another

as a result / consequence, consequently, therefore / thus, for this reason

because, since

due to, be the result of, given that

Giving Examples

Function: to introduce an illustration or example

for example, for instance, to illustrate

specifically, in particular, that is

such as, an example of

Conclusion Transitions

Function: to signal a final summary of ideas

to summarize, in summary, in short, in sum

in conclusion, to conclude

accordingly, ultimately

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• Transcription

For the purposes of what follows and for ease of exemplification, we will focus on written texts.  Don't, however, lose sight of the fact that these features occur frequently in spoken discourse, too.

Consider these two exchanges:

Two questions: 1. Are these both comprehensible? 2. What's the difference in making them comprehensible? Click here when you have an answer .

Yes, they are both comprehensible to the speakers but only the first one is fully comprehensible (or comprehensible at all) to an outsider. The difference is that:

• I n the first dialogue it is clear that He refers to John so the conversation is cohesive.
• In the second dialogue, there is no cohesion but if both people know that it is John's job to cut the grass (or go and telephone the gardener, of whatever), then the answer could mean the same.  In fact, it could contain more information because the hearer might well know not just where John is but what he is doing.

The second dialogue is coherent (it makes sense) but not cohesive . The first dialogue is both coherent and cohesive. Written texts, of course, need to exhibit greater cohesion because the writer and reader may not share information and may not be in the same place at the same time so the reader cannot infer meaning from context. What follows concerns cohesion.  If you want to look at written coherence, try the guide to genre, linked below especially the part concerning theme-rheme structures in texts (opens in a new tab).

In the first dialogue, above, you saw that the pronoun he referred back to the name of the person, John .  That is known as anaphoric reference .  It means referring back to something already mentioned.

There are other sorts of referencing which can be set out like this:

Can you identify the four main sorts of referencing in this short email?

Hi, Thanks for that.  It's going to help, I think. By the way, I'm going to take the kids out next Monday and wondered if you wanted to come.  It'll be a long drive for them but when we get there, I'll bet they'll love Chessington Zoo. Let me know if you can make it. Cheers

Click here when you have identified one example of each type of referencing .

• In the first line, there are two exophoric references to it and that .  It isn't possible to know what these refer to unless you are party to the conversation.
• Arguably, the kids is another example of the same thing as the definite article is usually used to refer to already given information.  In this case, the writer is assuming that the reader knows the kids in question.
• It in It'll be a long way refers anaphorically to taking the kids out.
• them and they later also refer anaphorically to the kids .  The kids have already been mentioned in the text so these two references are endophoric as well.
• Finally, there refers cataphorically to Chessington Zoo and is also endophoric.

There is an additional type of exophoric referencing, not exemplified here, which is called homophoric .  It occurs when reference is to something outside the text and relies on the hearer / writer's knowledge of the cultural or social setting for its understanding.  So for example:     We're going to the zoo will be understood in many cultural, national or regional settings to refer only to a particular zoo known to both parties to the exchange, regardless of the fact that there are many zoos in the world.

The following draws heavily on Halliday and Hasan (1976) as does much else in this area of study. We'll take each of the categories they identified and exemplify them with short written or spoken texts.

Most of the examples above are, or could be, in spoken texts so now, to balance things, we'll turn to a written text.

For this section, you need to download the sample text which is used to exemplify the discussion.  Save / print the text or have it open in a new tab to refer to as we go along.

This is not a complete analysis of the text but in the following table, the key types of referencing and examples from the text are identified.

Notice, too, the expression in the same boat (line 27) which substitutes for almost everything in the letter.

This guide is about cohesion and mostly focuses on the ways in which it is achieved via referencing and connective devices. There is, however, an additional lexical trick in most languages through which entire texts and sets of propositions can be effectively linked through the use of shell nouns. These are discussed at a greater level of detail in the guide to them, linked below, so here we will just cite more or less what is said in the guide to nouns in general to give you a flavour of how they operate to increase internal cohesion in texts. Briefly, what shell nouns do is to encapsulate ideas in a way that makes the noun itself the shell for a set of propositions.  For example in:

The problem is that too many vehicles use the new bypass causing congestion at peak times so the aim is to limit the traffic by improving and extending alternative routes through the suburbs.

we have two shell nouns, problem and aim which respectively encapsulate the propositions of identifying an issue and seeking a solution. The shell noun is usually followed by the proposition that it encapsulates linked either with a that- clause ( problem ) or just a simple copula such as be ( aim ). Shell nouns fall into recognisable categories which are explained and exemplified in the guide to them.  They include, for example, nouns such as:

ability, advantage, aim, aspect, belief, capacity, context, danger, difference, doubt, drawback, effort, event, fact, idea, knowledge, mistake, mystery, need, opportunity, part, permission, place, plan, position, possibility, priority, problem, problem, procedure, proof, question, reality, reason, result, sign, similarity, situation, situation, solution, struggle, theory, time, trouble, truth, view, way, worry

The use of shell nouns is particularly common is some kinds of academic texts in which the author is concerned to set up a series of propositions under an overall heading of, e.g., reason, problem, theory, outcome, necessity and so on. In terms of cohesion, you can see the efficacy of using shell nouns by comparing these two short texts:

• People in the organisation are spending too much duplicating work that is being done in other departments leading to unfocused activity and often to internal contradictions.  This must be addressed by setting out clearer definitions of people's roles.  It can be tackled in one of three ways ...
• People in the organisation are spending too much duplicating work that is being done in other departments leading to unfocused activity and often to internal contradictions.  This wasteful duplication must be addressed by setting out clearer definitions of people's roles.  It can be tackled in one of three ways ...

It should be clear that in the second version, the issue is discussed within a noun shell, the expression wasteful duplication , which is quite specific and more carefully defined than it would be with the use of a more generalised shell noun such as problem . In the first version, the use of it in the final sentence is potentially confusing because the reader is left to surmise what the referent might be.  In the second version, because we have a shell noun, it is quite clear what it refers to: wasteful duplication . That means that the writer can thereafter refer to the whole set of propositions with a simple pronouns, this, that or it , used to refer to the wasteful duplication rather than vaguely pointing at something in the text. It also means that the text hangs together much more successfully because the reader is aware of exactly what is being discussed.  In other words, cohesion is achieved. If you would like a list of potential shell nouns, click here .

You may find all of the above referred to as discourse markers and some of them are.  However, properly understood, the term discourse marker applies to an item used to manage spoken interaction so things like:     Yes, I see your point but ...     Well, for a start ...     Do you see? etc. are discourse markers which contribute to coherent exchanges. On this site, we avoid the term discourse marker except in this narrower sense and prefer cohesive device for the items we are concerned with in this guide.

There are three ways that article use contributes to cohesion and referencing.

• The first time a noun is mentioned, it is usually preceded (if it is countable) by the indefinite article.  The second time by the definite article, signalling to the reader / hearer that the reference is to a known item.  For example,     A strange car was parked outside my house.  It's difficult to find a parking space in my street so I hoped the car wouldn't be there later. In that example, the use of the car later signals that it is a known entity and refers to the same car.
• Note however, that we can use the definite article to signal the only possible entity as in, e.g.:     A car drew up and the driver got out. In this case, the definite article signals to the reader / hearer that it is the driver of a particular car, not just any driver. Consider the oddness of:     A car drew up and a driver got out but the acceptability of:     A car drew up and a passenger got out
• The definite article may also refer to something outside the text which is known to both speaker / writer and reader / hearer because they share a common cultural or social milieu.  For example,     The minister has replied to our letter Now, minister can mean a politician or a member of the clergy and there are probably many thousands of them around the world.  It is clear, however, from the use of the definite article that a particular minister, known to both participants in the discourse, is meant here. Another example, of what is called homophoric reference is to entities such as the government, the Queen, the President, the Czar etc. when knowledge of the culture precludes any other meaning. Exophoric referencing cannot, technically, be called cohesive because it does not connect items in the text.  It is, however, a potential barrier to understanding and makes the text coherent.

Mention is briefly made above to theme-rheme structures and here's a little more on that, erm, theme. There are three types of theme that contribute to cohesion in texts, whether written or spoken:

• Topical themes are the most familiar and concern us in what follows.  They refer to the subject of the verb usually so in, for example:     The washing machine in the basement has broken down the noun phrase The washing machine in the basement is the topical theme and the rest of the sentence constitutes the rheme. The topical theme is not always the subject of the verb, however, so we can also have, e.g., with the topical themes highlighted :     It was John she gave the money to     The clothes have been washed     Money , that's what we need Topical themes are often fronted but may be post-positioned as in the first of those examples.
• Textual themes serve directly to link items together and in this guide we have been referring to them as conjunctions and conjuncts.  Additionally, wh- words can form textual themes.  The textual themes are highlighted in these examples:     Mary spoke to him as soon as she arrived.     He was, however , not really listening     Why was that?
• Interpersonal themes concern the interactions between speakers (usually) and signal the speaker's opinions and viewpoints.  They are highlighted in these examples:     She might get upset     I think she's going to In most cases, interpersonal themes do not contribute specifically to cohesion but they are powerful drivers of coherence in texts.

This is important because, although we may know what forms of cohesion there are in English, unless we know what to connect with what, the picture is incomplete and the knowledge is unused (and useless).  The analysis of theme-rheme structures allows us to identify where and to what references should be made, in other words.

There is a separate guide to theme-rheme structures on this site, linked below, where you should go for more detail but, briefly, the theme is the jumping off point for the clause and what follows it is the rheme.  That rheme often forms the theme of the next clause with a new rheme which, in turn forms the theme of a subsequent clause.  The structure of this form of cohesion can be exemplified like this:

Mary came to the party and she brought her brother.  He turned out to be an interesting person because he worked in television with some quite famous people.  They included some of my favourite personalities.

In which we have:

• The first theme ( Mary ) with its rheme ( came to the party ) and then the theme repeated, with linking additive coordination ( and ) and pronoun substitution ( she ) with a new rheme brought her brother .
• That rheme forms the theme of the next clause ( turned out to be an interesting person ) which is connected by subordination ( because ) with the next pronoun substitution ( he ) with its rheme ( worked in television with some quite famous people ).
• That rheme becomes the next theme ( they ) which has the rheme included some of my favourite personalities .

The moral is that teaching people how to make texts cohesive without teaching what items need cohesive links is a waste of valuable time.

Of course there's a test .

Re ference: Nothing in this area is complete without reference to Halliday MAK & Hasan R, 1976, Cohesion in English, Harlow : Longman

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