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A brief introduction to the Chinese education system

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Structure of the Chinese education system

In China, education is divided into three categories: basic education, higher education, and adult education. By law, each child must have nine years of compulsory education from primary school (six years) to junior secondary education (three years). 

Basic education

Basic education in China includes pre-school education (usually three years), primary education (six years, usually starting at the age of six) and secondary education (six years).

Secondary education has two routes: academic secondary education and specialized/vocational/technical secondary education. Academic secondary education consists of junior (three years) and senior middle schools (three years). Junior middle school graduates wishing to continue their education take a locally administered entrance exam, on the basis of which they will have the option of i) continuing in an academic senior middle school; or ii) entering a vocational middle school (or leaving school at this point) to receive two to four years of training. Senior middle school graduates wishing to go to universities must take National Higher Education Entrance Exam (Gao Kao). According to the Chinese Ministry of Education, in June 2015, 9.42 million students took the exam.

Higher education

Higher education is further divided into two categories: 1) universities that offer four-year or five-year undergraduate degrees to award academic degree qualifications; and 2) colleges that offer three-year diploma or certificate courses on both academic and vocational subjects.  Postgraduate and doctoral programmes are only offered at universities. 

Adult education

Adult education ranges from primary education to higher education. For example, adult primary education includes Workers’ Primary Schools, Peasants’ Primary Schools in an effort to raise literacy levels in remote areas; adult secondary education includes specialized secondary schools for adults; and adult higher education includes traditional radio/TV universities (now online), most of which offer certificates/diplomas but a few offer regular undergraduate degrees.

Term times and school hours

The academic year is divided into two terms for all the educational institutions: February to mid-July (six weeks of summer vacation) and September to mid/late-January (four weeks of winter vacation).  There are no half-terms.

Most schools start in the early morning (about 7:30 am) to early evening (about 6 pm) with 2 hours lunch break. Many schools have evening self-study classes running from 7 pm-9 pm so students can finish their homework and prepare for endless tests. If schools do not run self-study evening classes, students still have to do their homework at home, usually up to 10 pm. On average, primary school pupils spend about seven to eight hours at school whilst a secondary school student spends about twelve to fourteen hours at school if including lunchtime and evening classes. Due to the fierce competitiveness to get into good universities, the pressure to do well for Gao Kao is intense.  Many schools hold extra morning classes in science and math for three to four hours on Saturdays. If schools do not have Saturday morning classes, most parents would send their children to expensive cramming schools at weekends or organise one-to-one private tuition for their children over the weekend.

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Education of China

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• Table Of Contents

The educational system in China is a major vehicle for both inculcating values in and teaching needed skills to its people. Traditional Chinese culture attached great importance to education as a means of enhancing a person’s worth and career. In the early 1950s the Chinese communists worked hard to increase the country’s rate of literacy, an effort that won them considerable support from the population. By the end of that decade, however, the government could no longer provide jobs adequate to meet the expectations of those who had acquired some formal schooling. Other pressing priorities squeezed educational budgets, and the anti-intellectualism inherent in the more-radical mass campaign periods affected the status and quality of the educational effort. These conflicting pressures made educational policy a sensitive barometer of larger political trends and priorities. The shift to rapid and pragmatic economic development as the overriding national goal in the late 1970s quickly affected China’s educational system.

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The Chinese educational structure provides for six years of primary school , three years each of lower secondary school and upper secondary school, and four years in the standard university curriculum. All urban schools are financed by the state, while rural schools depend more heavily on their own financial resources. Official policy stresses scholastic achievement, with particular emphasis on the natural sciences. A significant effort is made to enhance vocational training opportunities for students who do not attend a university . The quality of education available in the cities generally has been higher than that in the countryside, although considerable effort has been made to increase enrollment in rural areas at all education levels.

The traditional trend in Chinese education was toward fewer students and higher scholastic standards, resulting in a steeply hierarchical educational system. Greater enrollment at all levels, particularly outside the cities, is gradually reversing that trend. Primary-school enrollment is now virtually universal, and nearly all of those students receive some secondary education; about one-third of lower-secondary graduates enroll in upper-secondary schools. The number of university students is increasing rapidly, though it still constitutes only a small fraction of those receiving primary education . For the overwhelming majority of students, admission to a university since 1977 has been based on competitive nationwide examinations, and attendance at a university is usually paid for by the government. In return, a university student has had to accept the job provided by the state upon graduation. A growing number of university students are receiving training abroad, especially at the postgraduate level.

The system that developed in the 1950s of setting up “key” urban schools that were given the best teachers, equipment, and students was reestablished in the late 1970s. The inherently elitist values of such a system put enormous pressure on secondary-school administrators to improve the rate at which their graduates passed tests for admission into universities. In addition, dozens of elite private schools have been established since the early 1990s in China’s major cities.

Six universities, all administered directly by the Ministry of Education in Beijing , are the flagships of the Chinese higher educational system. Three are located in Beijing: Peking University (Beijing Daxue), the leading nontechnical institution; Tsinghua (Qinghua) University, which is oriented primarily toward science and engineering; and People’s University of China, the only one of the six founded after 1949. The three outside Beijing are Nankai University in Tianjin , which is especially strong in the social sciences; Fudan University, a comprehensive institution in Shanghai ; and Sun Yat-sen (Zhongshan) University in Guangzhou (Canton), the principal university of South China. In addition, every province has a key provincial university, and there are hundreds of other technical and comprehensive higher educational institutions in locations around the country. The University of Hong Kong (founded 1911) is the oldest school in Hong Kong.

The damage done to China’s human capital by the ravages of the Great Leap Forward and, especially, by the Cultural Revolution was so great that it took years to make up the loss. After the 1970s, however, China’s educational system increasingly trained individuals in technical skills so that they could fulfill the needs of the advanced, modern sector of the economy. The social sciences and humanities also receive more attention than in earlier years, but the base in those disciplines is relatively weak—many leaders still view them with suspicion—and the resources devoted to them are thin.

Cultural life

China is one of the great cradles of world civilization, and its culture is remarkable for its duration, diversity , and influence on other cultures , especially those of its East Asian neighbors. Following is a survey of Chinese culture; in-depth discussions of specific cultural aspects are found in the article Chinese literature and in the sections on Chinese visual arts , music , and dance and theater of the article arts, East Asian .

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Education in China - statistics & facts

China's educational system, large regional disparities, key insights.

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Share of GDP spent on public education in China 2010-2022

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Adult literacy in China 1982-2020

Enrollment rate in tertiary education in China 1990-2023

Leading destinations for Chinese students studying abroad 2015 and 2022

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General overview.

• Premium Statistic Education Index - comparison of selected countries 2022
• Basic Statistic Adult literacy in China 1982-2020
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Education Index - comparison of selected countries 2022

Education index including inequality* of selected countries in 2022

Adult literacy rate in China from 1982 to 2020

Illiteracy rate in China 2022, by region

Illiteracy rate in China in 2022, by region

Enrollment rate in senior secondary education in China 1990-2023

Gross enrollment ratio in senior secondary education in China from 1990 to 2023

Gross enrollment ratio in tertiary education in China from 1990 to 2023

Leading universities Asia 2024

Leading universities as ranked by Times Higher Education in Asia in 2024

Education expenditure

• Premium Statistic Public expenditure on education in China 2013-2023
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• Premium Statistic Per capita spending of urban households in China on education & leisure 1990-2023
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Public expenditure on education in China 2013-2023

Public expenditure on education in China from 2013 to 2023 (in billion yuan)

Public expenditure on education as a share of the gross domestic product (GDP) in China from 2010 to 2022

Public education spending per student in China 2022, by level of education

Public education spending per student in China in 2022, by level of education (in yuan)

Per capita spending of urban households in China on education & leisure 1990-2023

Annual per capita expenditure of private urban households in China on education, culture, and recreation from 1990 to 2023 (in yuan)

Per capita expenditure of private households in China on education 2022, by region

Per capita expenditure of private urban households in China on education, culture and recreation in 2022, by region (in yuan)

Per capita spending of households in China on education & leisure 2000-2023

Annual per capita expenditure of households in China on education, culture, and recreation from 2000 to 2023 (in yuan)

Educational infrastructure

• Premium Statistic Number of pre-schools in China 2012-2022
• Premium Statistic Number of elementary schools in China 2012-2022
• Premium Statistic Number of elementary schools in China 2022, by region
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• Premium Statistic Number of high schools in China 2012-2022
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Number of pre-schools in China 2012-2022

Number of pre-schools in China between 2012 and 2022

Number of elementary schools in China 2012-2022

Number of elementary schools in China between 2012 and 2022

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Number of elementary schools in China in 2022, by region

Number of secondary vocational schools in China 2012-2022

Number of secondary vocational schools in China between 2012 and 2022

Number of high schools in China 2012-2022

Number of high schools in China between 2012 and 2022

Number of colleges and universities in China 2012-2022

Number of public colleges and universities in China between 2012 and 2022

Number of colleges and universities in China 2022, by region

Number of public colleges and universities in China in 2022, by region

Student situation

• Premium Statistic Number of students at elementary schools in China 2012-2022
• Premium Statistic Share of students repeating a year at elementary school in China 2018
• Premium Statistic Number of students at high schools in China 2012-2022
• Premium Statistic Number of students at colleges and universities in China 2013-2023
• Premium Statistic Undergraduate students enrolled at universities in China 2022, by region
• Premium Statistic Number of college and university graduates in China 2013-2023
• Premium Statistic Number of college and university graduates in China 2022, by region
• Premium Statistic Monthly salary of university graduates in China 2012-2022

Number of students at elementary schools in China 2012-2022

Number of students at elementary schools in China between 2012 and 2022 (in millions)

Share of students repeating a year at elementary school in China 2018

Share of students repeating a year at elementary school in China between 2008 and 2018

Number of students at high schools in China between 2012 and 2022 (in millions)

Number of students at colleges and universities in China 2013-2023

Number of undergraduate students enrolled at public colleges and universities in China from 2013 to 2023 (in millions)

Undergraduate students enrolled at universities in China 2022, by region

Number of undergraduate students enrolled at public colleges and universities in China in 2022, by region (in 1,000s)

Number of graduates from public colleges and universities in China between 2013 and 2023 (in 1,000s)

Number of college and university graduates in China 2022, by region

Number of graduates from public colleges and universities in China in 2022, by region (in 1,000s)

Monthly salary of university graduates in China 2012-2022

Monthly salary of college and university graduates in China from 2012 to 2022 (in yuan)

Foreign students in China

• Premium Statistic Total number of foreign students studying in China 2014-2018
• Premium Statistic Number of foreign students studying in China 2018, by country of origin
• Premium Statistic Most popular regions among foreign students in China 2018
• Premium Statistic Number of foreign students studying in China 2009-2018, by source of funding
• Premium Statistic Number of students from the United States studying in China 2011/12-2021/22

Total number of foreign students studying in China 2014-2018

Total number of foreign students studying in China from 2014 to 2018

Number of foreign students studying in China 2018, by country of origin

Number of foreign students studying in China in 2018, by selected country of origin

Most popular regions among foreign students in China 2018

Most popular regions among foreign students in China in 2018

Number of foreign students studying in China 2009-2018, by source of funding

Number of foreign students studying in China from 2009 to 2018, by source of funding

Number of students from the United States studying in China 2011/12-2021/22

Number of college and university students from the United States studying in China from academic year 2011/12 to 2021/22

Studying abroad

• Premium Statistic Number of Chinese students studying abroad 2010-2022
• Basic Statistic Number of Chinese students in the U.S. 2012/13-2022/23
• Premium Statistic Leading destinations for Chinese students studying abroad 2015 and 2022
• Premium Statistic Motivations of Chinese students to study abroad 2015-2024
• Premium Statistic Chinese student's intention to study abroad under COVID-19 2023

Number of Chinese students studying abroad 2010-2022

Number of students from China going abroad for study from 2010 to 2022 (in 1,000s)

Number of Chinese students in the U.S. 2012/13-2022/23

Number of college and university students from China in the United States from academic year 2012/13 to 2022/23

Chinese students' preferred destinations for studying overseas in 2015 and 2022

Motivations of Chinese students to study abroad 2015-2024

Major reasons for Chinese student to study overseas in 2015 and 2024

Chinese student's intention to study abroad under COVID-19 2023

Influence of coronavirus on Chinese student's plan to study overseas in 2023

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Education in China: An Introduction

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• First Online: 02 January 2024

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Chinese education has undergone tremendous transformation along with its socioeconomic reform in the past four decades. Education is no exception; it continues to change along with an increasingly complex and diversified world. This book provides a comprehensive overview and profound insights of education in China, to encourage further discussions on the issues and challenges confronting Chinese education and the world and to promote international understanding. The first chapter presents an overview of education in China over the past four decades and provides contextual information and analysis for the following 11 chapters. It reviews educational goals based on China’s Five-Year Plans and introduces the Chinese education system and structure. It explores the development of education and research in China, and reflects developmental trends based on statistical analysis.

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• Educational development
• Education system
• Educational scale
• Education resources
• Scientific research

1 An Overview of the Chinese Education System

Education in China has undergone tremendous transformation along with its socioeconomic reform in the past four decades. This chapter provides a general introduction on education development and systems in China. The analysis in this section focuses on educational goals in the twenty-first century since the beginning of 2000s, as well as educational development and progress since the reform and opening-up in 1978.

1.1 Evolving Educational Goals in the Past Two Decades

The analysis of educational goals is based on the policy documents of the Five-Year Plan for Economic and Social Development of the People’s Republic of China (hereafter the Five-Year Plan) endorsed by the National People’s Congress. The Five-Year Plans are formulated every five years and establish the main policy directions for further reform and development in the next five years. This series of plans set development goals for education, which reflect the educational conditions in China over time. By analyzing the goals during the past two decades, the progress and advancement of government’s efforts on education can be summarized and more clearly understood.

1.1.1 The 10th Five-Year Plan (2001–2005)

Speeding up Education Development. The 10th Five-Year Plan was endorsed by the ninth National People’s Congress in 2001 (National People’s Congress, 2001 ). It set China’s development goals from 2001 to 2005 and proposed to speed up development.

To Develop All Types of Education at All Levels. The Plan put forward to promote well-rounded education ( suzhi education) Footnote 1 and the holistic development of students on moral, intellectual, physical, and aesthetic aspects. It prioritized the development of basic education, consolidated educational achievements in areas where nine-year compulsory education had been basically universal, and focused on developing compulsory education in economically disadvantaged areas in western China and areas with concentrations of ethnic minorities. The Plan pointed out the need to expand upper secondary education. It also proposed to implement Project 211 and strengthen a number of leading universities and disciplines in higher education. It also pushed the development of vocational education and training, early childhood education and distance learning in the Chinese context. ( ibid ).

To Further Reform the Education System. The Plan proposed to speed up the reform of schooling systems, to encourage, support, and standardize non-state actors to run schools in various forms, and establish an operating model for developing both public and private education sectors concurrently under the government’s guidance. The Plan intended to deepen the reform of education management system, guarantee decision-making powers of higher education institutions (hereafter HEIs) in accordance with the law, and construct an educational system that bridges vocational and traditional education. The Plan also encouraged increased education investment, strengthened mechanism to ensure funding to the compulsory education sector, and enhanced personnel and employment system for university graduates. ( ibid ).

1.1.2 The 11th Five-Year Plan (2006–2010)

Prioritizing Education Development. The 11th Five-Year Plan was endorsed by the 10th National People’s Congress in 2006 (National People’s Congress, 2006 ). It set China’s development goals from 2006 to 2010 and proposed to prioritize education development.

To Reinforce and Make Compulsory Education for All. The Plan put forward to reinforce the importance of compulsory education in rural areas, reduce the dropout rate of rural students, and promote the balanced development of compulsory education in urban and rural areas. ( ibid ).

To Develop Vocational Education and Training. The Plan proposed to further develop secondary vocational education, promote various vocational skills training projects and reform the teaching methods of vocational education. ( ibid ).

To Strengthen Higher Education Quality. The Plan encouraged improving the quality of higher education, optimizing the structure and enhancing the popularization of higher education. It proposed to strengthen the development of leading universities and key disciplines. Adult education was also emphasized. ( ibid ).

To Increase Educational Investment. The Plan specified a goal of gradually raising the percentage of government expenditure on education represented in GDP (Gross Domestic Product) to 4%. It aimed to promote educational equality and it proposed to allocate more public educational resources to rural areas, the central and western regions, poor areas and minority areas. It also pointed out the need for further developing student loans system, improving the subsidy system for students at all levels of schools, and the student aid system for economically disadvantaged students. ( ibid ).

To Further Reform the Education System. The Plan emphasized the need to make clear the responsibilities of government at all levels to provide public education, form a diversified system of educational investment and establish a strict publicity system for educational charges. It put forward creating a teaching system that adapted the requirements of well-rounded education, reforming the examination and enrollment systems, and promoting the reform of teaching, curriculum, and evaluation. It also proposed to reform education management system and establish a system that had clear regulations of responsibilities and guaranteed the decision-making powers of schools. ( ibid ).

1.1.3 The 12th Five-Year Plan (2011–2015)

Further Accelerating Education Reform. The 12th Five-Year Plan was endorsed by the 11th National People’s Congress in 2011(National People’s Congress, 2011 ). It set China’s development goals from 2011 to 2015 and proposed to further accelerate education reform.

To Develop All Types of Education at All Levels. The Plan set the goal of actively developing preschool education and raising total enrollment for children receiving one-year preschool education to 85%. It emphasized reinforcing the achievement of the popularization of compulsory education. It also sought to popularize upper secondary education during the Five-Year period, vigorously develop vocational education and emphasize rural education. It was vital to improve the quality of higher education while speeding up the construction of world-class universities, national top universities, and key disciplines. It was also important to support education for minority nationalities and speed up the development of special education and continuing education. ( ibid ).

To Enhance Education Equality. The Plan pointed out the push to distribute educational resources equally, narrow the gap of educational development between regions, and promote a balanced development of compulsory education. It emphasized education development in rural, remote or poor areas and minority areas. ( ibid ).

To Promote Well-Rounded Education. In order to promote well-rounded education, the Plan put forward to reform the content, teaching methods and assessment system of education, and reinforce the holistic development of students on moral, intellectual, physical, and aesthetic aspects. It sought to widely administer Academic Proficiency Test and Comprehensive Student Assessment in upper secondary education. In higher education, the Plan focused on carrying out projects related to the improvement of teaching quality, instructional reform, and the creation of an effective evaluation system. ( ibid ).

To Further Reform the Education System. The Plan set the goal of reforming the examination system and enrollment method, and gradually forming an effective system including classified exams, comprehensive quality assessment and diversified admission standards. The decision-making powers of schools were guaranteed and expanded, and non-state actors were encouraged to run schools. The Plan also claimed to follow globalization trends, strengthen international cooperation, and underscore high-quality educational resources. ( ibid ).

1.1.4 The 13th Five-Year Plan (2016–2020)

Promoting the Modernization of Education. The 13th Five-Year Plan was endorsed by the 12th National People’s Congress in 2016 (National People’s Congress, 2016 ). It set China’s development goals from 2016 to 2020 and proposed to promote the modernization of education.

To Promote the Balanced Development of Basic Public Education. The Plan proposed to establish a unified urban and rural funding mechanism for compulsory education, take appropriate measures to ensure that state-run schools that provide compulsory education comply with educational standards, and work to raise the completion rate of compulsory education to 95%. It was important to improve the quality of teachers with emphasis on those teachers in rural areas and improve the teaching environment in rural schools. The Plan envisioned a more accessible preschool education system by proposing the targets of opening kindergartens to all children and raising the gross enrollment for children receiving three-year preschool education to 85%. It specified the goal of raising the gross enrollment of upper secondary education to over 90%. The Plan also encouraged increased availability of special needs education for groups with disabilities and promoted the development of education for ethnic minority students. ( ibid ).

To Integrate Vocational Education and Industry. The Plan aimed to improve the modern vocational education system and give momentum to training models for applied expertise and technical skills, which allow for the involvement of industry and vocational education as well as increased cooperation between schools and enterprises. It also emphasized the mutual recognition and vertical mobility between vocational education and regular education. ( ibid ).

To Train Innovators in University. The Plan attached importance to the system for ensuring the quality of higher education. It intended to manage higher education based on classifications and carry out the comprehensive reform of institutions of higher learning, implement an educational system using different methods to train academic talents and applied talents whilst combining general knowledge and major-specific knowledge. It aimed to invigorate higher education in the central and western regions. The Plan sought to ensure that all universities improve their capacity for innovation and adopt a coordinated approach to developing world-class universities and disciplines. ( ibid ).

To Build a Learning Society. The Plan emphasized developing continuing education and it envisioned a system for lifelong learning and training that was available to all members of society. The open sharing of learning resources and the development of senior citizen education were also encouraged. ( ibid ).

To Enhance the Vitality of the Reform of Education. The Plan emphasized furthering reform examination and enrollment systems as well as instructional method. It also put forth efforts to reform the professional title system for elementary and secondary school teachers nationwide and promote close integration of modern information technology with education and teaching. The decision-making powers of schools were expanded, and non-state actors and investors were encouraged to provide a diverse range of educational services. ( ibid ).

1.1.5 The 14th Five-Year Plan (2021–2025) and Vision 2035

Reinforcing a High-Quality Education System. The 14th Five-Year Plan and Vision 2035 was endorsed by the 13th National People’s Congress in 2021 (National People’s Congress, 2021 ). It sets China’s development goals from 2021 to 2025 and puts forward China’s long-term development plan towards 2035. In education sector, it proposes to reinforce a high-quality education system.

To Promote the Equality of Basic Public Education. The most current Plan aims to consolidate the achievement of balanced development of compulsory education, promote the further development of balanced compulsory education, and close the urban–rural divide. It seeks to strengthen the ranks of teachers and improve the quality of teaching staff in rural schools. In upper secondary education, it specifies the target of raising the gross enrollment ratio to over 92%. The Plan also sets the goals of guaranteeing preschool education be more inclusive and requiring special education and specialized education be more accessible. It requires the gross enrollment of preschool education to be raised to over 90%. ( ibid ).

To Enhance the Adaptability of Vocational Education . It is important to highlight the characteristics of vocational education and train substantial talents with technical and professional skills. The Plan seeks to reform the schooling mode of vocational education and give impetus to the involvement of industry and vocational education as well as cooperation between schools and enterprises. It also emphasizes the link between vocational education and regular education. ( ibid ).

To Improve the Quality of Higher Education . The Plan puts forward managing higher education based on classifications, carrying out comprehensive reform of institutions of higher learning, and enhancing the gross enrollment ratio to 60%. It encourages the adoption of a classified approach to developing world-class universities and disciplines, and it supports the development of leading research universities. It also points out the importance of reforming the talent training system for basic disciplines and expanding the scale of graduates with professional degrees. ( ibid ).

To Improve the Quality of Teaching Staff. The Plan intends to establish a modern system of high-performing teaching staff, and places emphasis on constructing normal education bases, developing public-funded education for normal university students, and deepening the comprehensive reform of the management of teachers in elementary schools, secondary schools, and kindergartens. ( ibid ).

To Further Reform Education. The Plan aims to improve the systems and mechanisms of educational assessment and develop well-rounded education. It requires education to be covered in public welfare, and it points out to raise the spending on education and increase the efficiency of the use of educational spending. It is important to expand the decision-making powers of schools and reinforce the comprehensive reform of examination and enrollment systems. It also recommends supporting and regulating the development of non-state education and promote the cooperation with leading schools of other countries. Moreover, the Plan intends to exploit the advantages of online education, improve the system of lifelong learning and build a learning society. ( ibid ).

1.1.6 Developmental Trends of Educational Goals

Since 2001, China has experienced a period of rapid development. These five Five-Year Plans issued during this period have proposed educational goals based on China’s conditions at that time and have been leading the development of education in China. The Plans have been guiding China to improve educational quality and promote educational equity. During the past 20 years, the educational goals have been increasingly detailed. Specific goals have been put forward for all types of education and at all levels. Making education for all and promoting educational reform have become a priority. Above all, the quality of education has been emphasized all the time. The fundamental criterion for measuring the quality of education is promoting the all-round development of individuals and meeting the needs of society (The State Council, 2010 ). The Five-Year Plans put forward specific reform measures for all types of education at all levels to guarantee the development of well-rounded education and promote the all-round development of students on moral, intellectual, physical, and aesthetic aspects. In the background, enrollment ratios of schools at all levels have been consistently rising; the emphasis on quality reflects the transformation of China’s main target from scale expansion to deep development. In order to implement a comprehensive economic and social development strategy for the country, China has relied heavily on science and education, emphasized on talent development, and determined to drive development through innovation. Therefore, developing well-rounded education and continuously improving the quality of education, have been and will be the long-term development goals (Table 1 ).

1.2 The Education System

China’s education system covers preschool education, compulsory education, upper secondary education, and higher education (Fig. 1 ). Compulsory education includes elementary education and lower secondary education; higher education includes undergraduate education and graduate education.

The education system of China. Source Adapted from OECD ( 2016 )

1.2.1 Preschool Education

In China, children usually enroll in preschool at the age of two or three and leave preschool at the age of six. Preschool education is not compulsory education. However, the government takes a proactive role in promoting preschool accessibility. Public preschool and private preschool are both important in China. In 2021, 48.11% of preschool students were in private preschools (Ministry of education [MOE], 2022 ).

1.2.2 Compulsory Education

China adopts a system of nine-year compulsory education, which shall be received by all school-age children and adolescents. It generally includes six years of elementary education and three years of lower secondary education. However, there is some variation between regions with a small number of them having a “5 + 4” rather than a “6 + 3” structure. In public schools, compulsory education is publicly funded and is implemented uniformly by the State; no tuition or miscellaneous fees are charged, and the State shall establish a guaranteed mechanism for operating funds for compulsory education. Elementary education and lower secondary education are also provided by private schools, while they are not free of charge. In 2021, 10.60% of compulsory education students were in private schools (MOE, 2022 ). In compulsory education, curricula and standards are set by MOE and then implemented nationwide by provincial and municipal governments. Article Three of Compulsory Education Law of the People’s Republic of China stipulates that well-rounded education shall be carried out to improve the quality of education and enable children and adolescents to achieve all-round development—morally, intellectually, and physically—so as to lay the foundation for cultivating well-educated and self-disciplined workforce with high ideals and moral integrity (National People’s Congress, 2018a ).

1.2.3 Upper Secondary Education

After compulsory education, students can choose whether to continue to upper secondary education. Upper secondary education is three years in duration and includes two types of schools: regular senior high schools and secondary vocational schools. Regular senior high school represents academic track, while secondary vocational school represents vocational track. Footnote 2 Students complete a senior high school entrance examination ( zhongkao ) before entering upper secondary schools. Students are assigned to different types of upper secondary schools based upon entrance examination results. In China, upper secondary education is mostly publicly funded. In 2021, 17.29% of regular senior high school students and 20.40% of secondary vocational school students were in private schools (MOE, 2022 ).

1.2.4 Higher Education

According to Article Two of Higher Education Law of the People’s Republic of China , higher education in China is defined as “education that is carried out after the completion of upper secondary education” (National People’s Congress, 2018b ). It is a general term inclusive of postsecondary education provided by academies, universities, colleges, vocational institutions, institutes of technology and certain other collegiate-level institutions, including vocational schools, trade schools, and career colleges that award academic degrees or professional certifications (Yu et al., 2012 ). In China, the bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degrees are the three officially sanctioned higher education degrees. China’s higher education includes undergraduate education and graduate education. Within the undergraduate education system, regular higher education is the more academic route and tertiary vocational education is the more vocational route; through examination, students of tertiary vocational education can transfer to regular higher education . Students of both routes have opportunities to obtain bachelor’s degree. Graduate education system includes master’s education and doctoral education. Admissions to undergraduate education are based on students’ scores of college entrance examination ( gaokao ), and admissions to graduate education are based on students’ results of entrance examinations. In China, higher education is mostly publicly funded. In 2021, 24.19% of undergraduate students were in private HEIs (MOE, 2022 ).

1.3 The Educational Development Since the Reform and Opening-Up in 1978

1.3.1 focusing on developing education.

Providing education with concentrated strength and focus has always been the most obvious feature of “holding a large scale of education in a poor country”. In order to speed up reform within the shortest period, China adopted a plan of concentrating limited educational resources on selected schools and key fields and concentrating efforts on training in-demand skills and occupations.

Key Elementary and Secondary Schools. In January 1978, MOE stipulated the objectives, tasks, plans, enrollment methods, and leadership of key elementary and secondary schools. In October 1980, MOE sought to build approximately 700 key secondary schools as first-class, high-quality and distinctive schools with good studying habits. In July 1995, National Education Commission (the predecessor of MOE) evaluated and published a list of around 1,000 model regular senior high schools.

Projects 211 and 985 to Develop Higher Education Excellence. In 1993, the State proposed that the central government and local authorities should concentrate on running about 100 key universities and a number of core disciplines. In November 1995, Project 211 officially launched. In 1998, President Jiang Zemin put forward to establish a number of world-class universities in China. In 1999, Project 985 officially launched. These projects aimed to develop a number of excellent universities and enhance the strength of higher education.

Key Vocational Schools. In order to improve the quality of vocational education, in January 1995, the State Council proposed to carry out the evaluation and accreditation of national key secondary vocational schools, and 296 key vocational schools were selected nationwide. (Zhang, 2018 ).

1.3.2 Governing Education Development Through Laws and Regulations

Governing education development through legislation reflects the advancement of modernization in the field of education.

Within the compulsory education sector, Chinese government proposed the implementation of nine-year compulsory education in 1985, and then enacted Compulsory Education Law of the People’s Republic of China in 1986. It took 25 years for China to develop compulsory education from the all-round “universal” stage to the quality improvement stage. As a developing country with a large population, China has realized the target of requiring nine-year compulsory education for all.

China established its higher education academic degree system in 1980. Higher Education Law of the People’s Republic of China promulgated in 1998 formulated a degree system including bachelor’s degree, master’s degree, and doctoral degree, and it has become one of the most important laws to promote the development of higher education.

In the areas of preschool education, special education, and vocational education, the State Council approved the first administrative regulation of preschool education in 1989. China promulgated the first special regulation on education for the disabled in 1994 and implemented Vocational Education Law of the People’s Republic of China in 1996. ( ibid ).

1.3.3 Taking Efficiency and Equity into Consideration

With the development of education in China and the basic realization of equitable education as a starting point, the focus of education reform and development has been gradually converted from the equity of entry to the equity of educational process. Additional efforts have been made to improve the insufficient and imbalanced development of education.

Resuming College Entrance Examinations and Relaxing Restrictions on the Identity of Candidates. In 1977, the college entrance examinations were resumed. Groups including workers, peasants, and fresh high school graduates could sit for the exam as long as they match the requirements, and this change helped improve the equity of talent selection.

Eliminating the Drop-Out of Girls and Promoting Equal Education Opportunities for Men and Women. The Chinese government has actively taken actions to eliminate the dropping-out of girls and worked to effectively guarantee school-age girls’ rights to receive education.

Ensuring School-Age Children’s Right to Receive Compulsory Education . Chinese government has been working to provide more policy support and taking measures to protect school-age children’s right to receive nine-year compulsory education.

Effectively Narrowing the Gap between Regions, Urban and Rural Areas, Schools, and Groups. To narrow the educational gap between the eastern, central, and western regions, additional financial investment has been dedicated to the central and western regions, and the revitalization plans for education in the central and western regions have been implemented. To narrow the educational gap between urban and rural areas, reforms have been implemented targeting low performing rural schools and providing additional support to rural teachers. To narrow the gap between schools, low-performance schools have been given advantages in educational funding, capital construction, the acquisition of teaching equipment, and the adjustment in teaching personnel. To narrow the gap between groups, the government has vigorously encouraged and supported disadvantaged groups to receive education. ( ibid ).

1.3.4 Encouraging and Supporting Education Diversification

Education is a common cause that unites the whole of society. It is important to encouraging non-state actors to participate in and support the development of education. Running schools by non-state actors can not only ease the shortage of educational funding, but also improve the vitality of education, meet diversified educational demands, and promote the health and scientific development of education.

A series of policies provides support and encouragement to non-state actors to run schools. Article 19 of Constitution of the People’s Republic of China promulgated in 1982 stipulated, “the State encourages collective economic organizations, state enterprises and institutions, and other non-state actors to organize education in accordance with the law” (National People’s Congress, 1982 ). In 1985, Chinese central government put forward to arouse the enthusiasm of governments at all levels, teachers, students, employees, and social actors through reform. In July 1997, the State Council endorsed regulations to support and regulate non-state actors to run schools. In September 2003, Private Education Promotion Law of the People’s Republic of China was promulgated and implemented, marking a new stage of legalization for China’s non-public educational sector. In 2016, the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress and the State Council issued regulations to actively guide non-state actors to run non-profit private schools.

In addition, non-state actors have been invited to engage in developing education at all levels. Along with making nine-year compulsory education for all, Project Hope ( Xiwang Gongcheng ) and Spring Bud Project ( Chunlei Jihua ) sprung up. Project Hope, launched by China Youth Development Foundation in 1989, sought to build Hope Elementary School ( Xiwang Xiaoxue ) and subsidize students in poverty. The Spring Bud Project was initiated by China Children and Teenagers’ Foundation in 1989 to improve education for girls from impoverished families. Currently in upper secondary education sector, the proportion between public and private education is around 8:2. ( ibid ).

2 Educational Scale in China

Based on The 2020 Overview of Educational Achievements in China and The 2021 Statistical Bulletin on National Education Development published by MOE, this section depicts the scale of China’s education from the following four aspects: literacy level, number of schools, number of students, and number of full-time teachers. Footnote 3

2.1 Literacy Level

Literacy level is analyzed from the following four aspects: the number of students in elementary, junior secondary schools, and upper secondary education for every 100,000 people; the enrollment ratio in elementary, junior secondary schools, upper secondary education, and higher education; the proportion of elementary and junior secondary school graduates continuing on to the next education level; the ratio of enrollment to graduation at compulsory education level. The net enrollment ratio in elementary school and the gross enrollment ratio in junior secondary school in 2020 consistently maintained at a high level, and the gross enrollment ratio in higher education reached 57.80% in 2021, which was the highest ever (Table 2 ).

2.2 Number of Schools by Educational Sector and Level

Table 3 shows the number of schools by educational sector and level in 2021. The number of preschools reached 294,800, which was the largest ever. The number of schools of compulsory education was the second largest, with elementary schools representing three fourths and junior secondary schools representing one fourth. In upper secondary education, the number of regular senior high schools was larger than that of secondary vocational schools. In higher education, the number of HEIs reached 3,012 and seven of them are world-class universities.

2.3 Number of Students by Educational Sector and Level

Table 4 shows the number of students by educational sector and level in 2021. The number of compulsory education students reached over 158 million and the number of higher education students reached 44.3 million, which were the largest ever. In upper secondary education, the number of regular senior high school students was larger than that of secondary vocational school students.

2.4 Number of Full-Time Teachers by Educational Sector and Level

Table 5 shows the number of full-time teachers by educational sector and level in 2021. The number of full-time teachers in compulsory education was the largest among all categories. In 2021, excluding upper secondary education, the number of every category was the largest ever.

3 Educational Resources in China

Based on The 2020 Statistical Bulletin on Education Spending co-released by MOE, National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), and Ministry of Finance (MOF) in 2021, and The 2020 Overview of Educational Achievements in China published by MOE in 2021, this section depicts educational resources in China from the following four aspects: the overall spending on education, the general public expenditure on education, the general public operating expenditure on education per student, and school infrastructure. Footnote 4

3.1 Overall Spending on Education

Table 6 shows China’s overall spending on education in 2020. The overall spending on education nationwide reached US$812.79 billion, the spending on education from national budget reached US$657.61 billion, and the spending on education from national budget represented 4.22% in China’s GDP in 2020.

3.2 General Public Expenditure on Education

Table 7 shows China’s general public expenditure on education in 2020. The general public expenditure on education reached US$556.49 billion and it represented 14.78% in national public budget in 2020.

Table 8 shows the general public expenditure on education per student in schools by educational sector and level in 2020.The figure for higher education was the highest, while preschool was the lowest. The expenditures on elementary and junior secondary school in rural area were lower than the average number of that education level.

3.3 General Public Operating Expenditure on Education Per Student

Table 9 shows the general public operating expenditure on education per student in schools by educational sector and level in 2020. The expenditure on higher education was the highest, while preschool was the lowest. The figures for elementary and junior secondary school in rural area were slightly lower than the average number of that education level.

3.4 School Infrastructure

Table 10 illustrates the space utilization and equipment in schools by educational sector and level in 2020. The average value and average number of instructional equipment per student increased with the level of education. It is worth noting that the average value of teaching and scientific research equipment per student at secondary vocational schools was higher than that of regular senior high school.

4 Scientific Research in China

4.1 scientific research development at china’s heis.

Over the past four decades since reform and opening-up, China has gradually established a national innovation system. During this time, HEIs have become more and more important in scientific and technological innovation. This section reviews the technological policies in five important stages since 1978.

4.1.1 Stage One: Restoring the Scientific Research Function of HEIs (1978–1984)

In 1978, Chinese central government formulated the outline of national plan for science and technology development during the period from 1978 to 1985. Deng Xiaoping, the leader of China at the time, put forward strategies including “science and technology are elementary productive force” and “the key of the four modernizations is the modernization of science and technology”, which promote the restoration and development of science and technology system. During this period, the function of scientific research of HEIs has gradually been restored. In 1977, Deng Xiaoping expressed support for increased research activity by stating, “key higher education institutions are significant in scientific research and should undertake more scientific research tasks.” Since then, HEIs have been allocated with budget appropriation for scientific research from national funds, marking an official change and the restoration of HEI’s role in scientific research. In 1978, National Education Commission, National Science Commission (the predecessor of Ministry of Science and Technology [MOST]), and MOF decided to allocate RMB30 million from “the three types of expenses of science and technology” (which include the expense of new product experiment, the expense of semi-plant test, and key scientific research subsidies) to HEIs, in order to promote important scientific research and experiment. Scientific research has been included in the operating expenditure on higher education since 1979, and the appropriation for scientific research was RMB14.15 million that year. In 1985, the scientific research fund for HEIs was nearly RMB600 million (Yin & Shen, 2005 ).

4.1.2 Stage Two: Establishing Research Universities (1985–1994)

In 1985, Chinese government advocated, “higher education institutions and Chinese Academy of Sciences take important responsibilities for basic research and applied research. Basic research and applied research should be tightly combined with workforce needs. Higher education institutions that meet certain conditions are encouraged to construct distinctive and effective research institutes”. In September 1991, the State Council pointed out that, “higher education institutions should pay great attention to scientific research work and regard it as basic tasks”, “higher education institutions with a large number of key disciplines, important assignments of training graduate students, and good foundations for teaching and scientific research, should be developed into the center of education and the center of scientific research. They should take major responsibilities for scientific and technological tasks and train high-level talents for the country. They should also take the lead in improving China’s strength of science and technology and the quality of higher education” (Yin, 2005 ). In order to promote the development of scientific research in HEIs in the early 1990s, the Chinese government developed policy-level plans to invest special funds to construct research universities. In December 1991, National Planning Commission (the predecessor of National Development and Reform Commission [NDRC]), National Education Commission, and MOF proposed to the State Council that they all “agree to the country’s decision of establishing key universities and key disciplines that are required for national economic and social development”. In 1993, The Outline of China’s Education Reform and Development suggested the central government and local governments should jointly establish 100 strategic universities. All of these policies made a foundation for the formulation of the ensuring Project 211 of higher education (MOE, 2008 ).

4.1.3 Stage Three: Implementing National Initiatives to Further Develop Research Universities (1995–2004)

To reinforce Chinese higher education’s competitiveness in the global stage, Chinese government implemented a series of special plans to support the establishment of research universities. In November 1995, the overall plan for Project 211 was published, which suggested the central government and local governments should jointly establish around 100 key universities and a number of key disciplines that reach world-class level (MOE, 2008 ).

In December 1998, MOE put forward a goal of developing a number of key universities and key disciplines into world-class level in the following 10–20 years. In January 1999, the State Council ratified Project 985 of higher education.

During the period of the 10th Five-Year Plan (2001–2005) , China allocated considerable funding for the construction of Project 211 and Project 985. In 2001, the Education Work Conference proposed to strengthen the development of leading universities and key disciplines, make key discipline as the core and speed up the development (MOE, 2008 ). In 2004, the second phase of Project 985 was launched, which expanded the university list and a total of 39 universities were included and put forward five aspects of goals in developing world-class universities: mechanism innovation, talent training, platform establishment, supportive conditions, and international communication and cooperation (Yuan & Guo, 2012 ).

After nearly a decade of development, a number of Chinese HEIs had followed the direction of developing world-class universities and markedly improved their level of scientific research. By investigating the scale and influence of scientific research of China’s research universities from 1997 to 2006, it can be seen that the amount of scientific research achievements of China’s research universities had increased by nearly five times during decade, and the influence of scientific research achievements had continued to be enhanced during the period, while the turning point of scientific research output is basically the same as the time point of constructing Project 985 (Zhu & Liu, 2009 ).

4.1.4 Stage Four: Serving National Innovation System (2005–2014)

In 2005, the State Council published an outline of national plan for science and technology development in the period of 2006–2020 and proposed the general goal of “establishing national innovation system” (MOST, 2006 ).

While establishing a national innovation system, universities, especially research universities, were required to realize new targets. The State Council pointed out, “universities are important base of training high-level innovative talents, and they are one of the main forces of basic research and high-tech innovation.” Based on the demand of establishing national innovation system, Chinese universities were not only required to improve the strength of scientific research, but also required to form an innovation system collaboratively with enterprises and government (MOST, 2006 ). In 2008, NDRC, MOE, and MOF launched the third phase of Project 211, and it aimed at building China into an innovative country, as it strengthened the construction of key disciplines, innovative talents and personnel, and the public service system of higher education (MOST, 2006 ). MOE and other related ministries proposed the 2011 Plan in 2012. The 2011 Plan originated from “the urgent demand of the country and the requirement of reaching world-class level”, it was based on the trinity of improving the innovative capacity of talents, disciplines, and scientific research, and it aims at improving the quality of higher education and serving the development of economy and society (MOE, 2014 ).

4.1.5 Stage Five: Further Developing World-Class Universities and Disciplines (2015-Present)

In October 2015, the State Council issued The Overall Plan for Promoting the Construction of World-Class Universities and World-Class Disciplines and proposed to “promote a number of leading universities and disciplines to get into the first class or the front class in the world” (the State Council, 2015 ). It put forward the following goals: to develop a number of world-class universities and first-class academic disciplines by 2020; to have more universities and disciplines among the world’s best and to enhance the country’s overall higher education capacity by 2030; and to lead the number, quality and capacity of world-class universities and disciplines among the world’s best, becoming a higher education powerhouse by 2050 (the State Council, 2015 ).

In September 2017, MOE, MOF, and NDRC published the list of the Double World-Class Project, which selected 42 universities aiming for world-class status and 140 universities that were designated to develop world-class disciplines (MOE et al., 2017 ). In February 2022, the list of the second round of the Double World-Class Project was published, which selected more than 400 disciplines from 147 universities (MOE et al., 2022 ). The purpose of the Double World-Class Project is to support the national strategy of innovation-driven development, improve the level of educational development, strengthen the core competitiveness of the country, and realize the great development of China from a large country in higher education to a powerful country in higher education.

4.2 Research Performance of China’s HEIs

4.2.1 science and technology (s&t) research output.

Scientific and technological achievements refer to the output of scientific and technological research created by scientific and technological personnel. The scientific and technological achievements at China’s HEIs mainly include four categories: scientific and technological books, academic papers, international projects completed and approved, and intellectual property rights and patents.

In 2021, China’s HEIs published 13,740 scientific and technological books; published 1,129,917 academic papers, of which 571,696 were published on foreign academic journals. A total of 3,271 international projects were completed and approved. In 2021, China’s HEIs applied 328,896 patents, of which 268,450 were authorized and 15,169 were sold. The number of other intellectual property rights (include software registration, integrated circuit design registration, new animal and plant varieties registration, and national new drug registration, etc.) that China’s HEIs acquired in 2021 was 34,915. (Department of Science, Technology and Informatization [DSTI], 2022 ).

4.2.2 Innovative Talent Development in S&T

Scientific and technological talents refer to the personnel who directly participate in scientific and technological activities in related institutions or departments and are paid, including scientists, engineers, technicians, and auxiliary personnel (UNESCO, 2014 ). In statistics, the scientific and technological workforce at China’s HEIs can be divided into three categories: teaching and scientific research personnel, R&D personnel, and personnel of scientific and technological services.

In 2021, the total number of scientific and technological workforce of China’s HEIs was approximately 1.85 million. The number of teaching and scientific research personnel was 1,268,970, accounting for around 69%; the number of R&D personnel was 516,101, accounting for around 28%; and around 3% of the total workforce was personnel of scientific and technological services, with the number of 67,038. (DSTI, 2022 ).

4.2.3 S&T Innovation Platforms

The scientific and technological innovation platforms at China’s HEIs mainly include national key laboratories, national engineering technology research centers, key laboratories of MOE, key laboratories on provincial and ministerial levels, engineering technology research centers on provincial and ministerial levels, and research institutes built by schools. (Wu & Tang, 2006 ).

4.2.4 S&T Projects at China’s HEIs

Scientific and technological projects refer to the research and experiment and development works that aim at solving complex and comprehensive scientific and technological problems. Scientific and technological projects at China’s HEIs mainly include three categories: basic research project, applied basic research project, and experiment and development project.

In 2021, the total number of scientific and technological projects of China’s HEIs was 696,714. The number of basic research projects was 303,197, accounting for around 44% of the total; the number of applied basic research projects was 328,869, accounting for around 47%; the number of experiment and development projects was 64,648, accounting for around 9%. (DSTI, 2022 ).

5 Trends of Chinese Education

5.1 trends in educational scale.

Based on The Overview of Educational Achievements in China and The Statistical Bulletin on National Education Development published by MOE from 2012 to 2022, this section analyses changes in education scale in the Chinese mainland from the following four aspects: gross enrollment ratios in schools by educational sector and level, number of schools, number of students, and number of full-time teachers.

5.1.1 Gross Enrollment Ratio

Figure 2 shows the enrollment ratios of schools by educational sector and level during the period from 2011 to 2021. The figures for elementary school and junior secondary school remained stable on a high level. The figures for preschool and upper secondary education consistently increased during the period. It is noticeable that the gross enrollment ratio of higher education rose rapidly and the figure for 2021 doubled that for 2011.

Gross enrollment ratio (2011–2021) (%). Source MOE ( 2012 – 2022 ). Notes 1. The enrollment ratio of elementary school is net enrollment ratio. 2. Gross enrollment ratio: the percentage of the total number of students (age groups are not specified) in a given education level represents in the population of the age group specified by that given education level, as informal age groups (low-age and over-age) are included, the figure can be over 100%. 3. Net enrollment ratio: the percentage of the total number of students (age groups are specified) in a given education level represents in the population of the age group specified by that given education level. 4. The official 2021 data of elementary school and junior secondary school are not published yet

5.1.2 Number of Schools

Figure 3 shows the total number of all types of schools at all levels in China during the period from 2011 to 2021. The number declined slightly in the period from 2011 to 2015, then it noticeably went up after 2016, and slightly declined in 2021.

Number of schools (2011–2021) (in thousand). Source MOE ( 2012 – 2022 )

5.1.3 Number of Schools by Educational Sector and Level

Figure 4 shows the number of schools by educational sector and level in China during the period from 2011 to 2021. The numbers of preschool significantly increased during the period, while the figures for elementary school consistently fell. The figures for junior secondary schools, upper secondary education, higher education, and special education were the lowest four categories, and generally remained stable during the period.

Number of schools by educational sector and level (2011–2021) (in thousand). Source MOE ( 2012 – 2022 ). Notes 1. Upper secondary education includes regular senior high schools, secondary vocational schools, and senior high schools for adults. In 2021, the data of upper secondary education do not include the data of senior high schools for adults, and the data of secondary vocational school do not include the data of technical schools. 2. Private school refers to all levels of schools that are not state-run, which includes preschool, elementary school, junior secondary school, regular senior high school, secondary vocational school, and regular HEIs

5.1.4 Number of Students

Figure 5 illustrates the total number of students in all types of schools at all levels in China during the period from 2011 to 2021. The figures fluctuated during the period from 2011 to 2016, and rapidly rose after 2016.

Number of students (2011–2021) (in thousand). Source MOE ( 2012 – 2022 )

5.1.5 Number of Students by Educational Sector and Level

Figure 6 shows the number of students in schools by educational sector and level in China during the period from 2011 to 2021. The figures for elementary school remained stable as the highest among all categories during the period. The number of preschool students went up steadily, and the number of junior secondary school fluctuated between 43,000 thousand and 51,000 thousand. Upper secondary education was the only category that showed a downward trend. The figures for higher education gradually increased and overtook that for upper secondary education in 2019. The figures for special education and private school generally showed an upward trend.

Number of students by educational sector and level (2011–2021) (in thousand). Source MOE ( 2012 – 2022 ). Notes 1. Upper secondary education includes regular senior high schools, secondary vocational schools, and senior high schools for adults. In 2021, the data of upper secondary education do not include the data of senior high schools for adults, and the data of secondary vocational school do not include the data of technical schools. 2. Private school refers to all levels of schools that are not state-run, which includes preschool, elementary school, junior secondary school, regular senior high school, secondary vocational school, and regular HEIs

5.1.6 Number of Full-Time Teachers

Figure 7 shows the total number of full-time teachers in all types of schools at all levels in China during the period from 2011 to 2021. The figures increased steadily during the period.

Number of full-time teachers (2011–2021) (in thousand). Source MOE ( 2012 – 2022 )

5.1.7 Number of Full-Time Teachers by Educational Sector and Level

Figure 8 shows the number of full-time teachers in schools by educational sector and level in China during the period from 2011 to 2021. The figures for all categories generally went up during the period. The number of full-time teachers of elementary school remained as the highest among all categories during the period. It is noticeable that the number of full-time teachers of preschool increased significantly and it nearly tripled from 1,316 thousand in 2011 to 3,191 thousand in 2021. The figures for higher education also increased considerably. The figures for special education remained as the lowest but consistently grow during the period.

Number of full-time teachers by educational sector and level (2011–2021) (in thousand). Source MOE ( 2012 – 2022 ). Notes Upper secondary education includes regular senior high schools, secondary vocational schools, and senior high schools for adults. In 2021, the data of upper secondary education do not include the data of senior high schools for adults, and the data of secondary vocational school do not include the data of technical schools

5.2 Trends in Education Resources

Based on The Statistical Bulletin on Education Spending co-released by MOE, NBS, and MOF from 2012 to 2021, this section shows the trends in education resources in China during the decade from the following four aspects: the overall spending on education nationwide, the general public expenditure on education, the general public expenditure on education per student, and the general public operating expenditure on education per student.

5.2.1 Overall Spending on Education

Figure 9 shows the trends of China’s overall spending on education nationwide during the period from 2011 to 2020. The figures increased steadily during the decade, and the figure for 2020 doubled that for 2011.

China’s overall spending on education (2011–2020) (in US$ billion). Source MOE et al. ( 2012 –2021). Notes The exchange rates of the data years are used

5.2.2 General Public Expenditure on Education

Figure 10 shows the trend of China’s general public expenditure on education during the period from 2011 to 2020. The figures increased consistently during the decade, and the figure for 2020 doubled that for 2011.

China’s general public expenditure on education (2011–2020) (in US$ billion). Source MOE et al. ( 2012 – 2021 ). Notes 1. General public expenditure on education includes operating expenditure, investments in infrastructure, and education surcharge. 2. The exchange rates of the data years are used

5.2.3 General Public Expenditure on Education Per Student

Figure 11 shows the trend of China’s general public expenditure on education per student in six levels of schools during the period from 2017 to 2020. The figures for five categories (exclude higher education) increased consistently during the period. The figure for higher education slightly declined in 2018 and then went up again, while higher education maintained as the highest during the period. The figures for preschool continue to be the lowest.

General public expenditure on education per student (2017–2020) (US$). Source : MOE et al. ( 2018 – 2021 ). Notes The exchange rates of the data years are used

5.2.4 General Public Operating Expenditure on Education per Student

Figure 12 shows the trend of China’s public operating expenditure on education per student in six levels of schools during the period from 2011 to 2020. The figures for all categories generally experienced an upward trend during the period. The figures for higher education were considerably higher than that for other categories and maintained as the highest, while the figures for elementary school were the lowest (the figures for preschool became the lowest after it was included in 2017).

General public operating expenditure on education per student (2011–2020) (US$). Source MOE et al. ( 2012 – 2021 ). Notes 1. The data of preschool only cover the period of 2017–2020. 2. The exchange rates of the data years are used

5.3 Trends in HEIs’ Scientific Research

5.3.1 the s&t achievements of china’s heis.

The achievements mainly include four categories: scientific and technological books, academic papers, international projects completed and approved, and intellectual property rights and patents.

Table 11 and Figs. 13 , 14 , 15 and 16 illustrate the scientific and technological achievements of China’s HEIs during the period from 2016 to 2021. The number of scientific and technological books published by China’s HEIs fluctuated during the period. The figures for academic papers and intellectual property rights and patents steadily rose. The figures for international projects completed and approved have consistently declined during the period from 2016 to 2020 but rose in 2021.

Number of scientific and technological books (2016–2021). Source DSTI ( 2017 – 2022 )

Number of academic papers (2016–2021). Source DSTI ( 2017 – 2022 )

Number of international projects completed and approved (2016–2021). Source DSTI ( 2017 – 2022 )

Number of intellectual property rights and patents (2016–2021). Source DSTI ( 2017 – 2022 ). Notes “Other intellectual property rights and patents” mainly include software registration, integrated circuit design registration, new animal and plant varieties registration, and national new drug registration, etc

5.3.2 The S&T Talents of China’s HEIs

The talents mainly include three categories: teaching and scientific research personnel, R&D personnel, and personnel of scientific and technological services.

Table 12 and Fig. 17 show the scientific and technological talents of China’s HEIs during the period from 2016 to 2021. The total number of talents has steadily increased during the period from 2016 to 2020, but slightly went down in 2021. The figures for teaching and scientific research personnel maintained as the highest among the three categories.

Number of scientific and technological talent (2016–2021). Source DSTI ( 2017 – 2022 )

5.3.3 The S&T Projects of China’s HEIs

The projects mainly include three categories: basic research projects, applied basic research projects, and experiment and development projects.

Table 13 and Fig. 18 show the scientific and technological projects of China’s HEIs during the period from 2016 to 2021. The figures for the three types of projects gradually went up, and the figures for applied basic research projects maintained as the highest.

Number of scientific and technological projects (2016–2021). Source DSTI ( 2017 – 2022 )

This section summarizes the developmental trend of education in China from 2011 to 2021. Analysis of trends in educational scale, funding resources, and scientific research at HEIs shows that education in China has undergone rapid transformation in the past decade, especially the higher education sector. In 2021, the number of students and full-time teachers in China reached the highest in history. At the same time, Chinese government’s expenditure on education increased substantially, and the expenditure on higher education per student exceeded per student funding for other education levels. Chinese HEIs’ S&T development has also shown significant progress, in terms of the number of academic papers and S&T projects.

Well-rounded education ( suzhi education) is close to but different from the well-rounded education in the U.S., which refers to education covering multiple subject areas. This notion is close to the notion of liberal arts education in the west, and it emphasizes on a holistic approach of student development, including the development on moral, intellectual, physical, and aesthetic aspects.

Secondary vocational school includes regular specialized high schools ( putong zhongzhuan ), vocational high schools ( zhiye gaozhong ), adult specialized high schools ( chengren zhongzhuan ), and technical schools ( jishu xuexiao ).

The statistics of this section does not include data on Hong Kong and Macao Special Administrative Regions and Taiwan Province.

The statistics of this section does not include of data on Hong Kong and Macao Special Administrative Regions and Taiwan Province.

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Feng, Z., Jia, X. (2024). Education in China: An Introduction. In: Niancai, L., Zhuolin, F., Qi, W. (eds) Education in China and the World. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5861-0_1

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Statistical report on China’s educational achievements in 2022

In 2022, China made great strides toward building a modern socialist nation by focusing on education as a central pillar of society. Under the guidance of the Party Central Committee and the State Council, the education system fully implemented President Xi Jinping’s instructions on education and reached new heights of success. Presented below is a synopsis of China’s educational successes in 2022, broken down by level and subject area.

In 2022, China had 518,500 educational institutions of all kinds and all levels with 293 million students enrolled. The number of full-time teaching staff was 18,803,600. New entrants into the workforce on average received 14 years of formal education.

I. Pre-school education

In 2022, the gross enrollment rate at pre-school level was 89.7%, 1.6 percentage points higher than in the previous year.

There were 289,200 kindergartens across the country, including 245,700 affordable kindergartens, accounting for 84.96% of kindergartens nationwide.

The number of children enrolled in kindergartens reached 46,275,500. Children registered in affordable kindergartens totaled 41,440,500, an increase of 1.77% over the previous year, accounting for 89.55% of registered preschoolers.

Kindergarten faculty and staff numbered 3,244,200, marking an increase of 1.67% over the previous year. The percentage of full-time teachers in preschool education meeting qualification requirements reached 99.39% and 90.30% of them had a junior college education.

II. Compulsory education

In 2022, the completion rate of nine-year compulsory education was 95.5%, 0.1 percentage point higher than in the previous year.

1. Primary schools

There were 149,100 primary schools nationwide, with 107 million registered students. Newly admitted students in 2022 totaled 17,013,900.

The number of primary school faculty and staff was 6,629,400. The percentage of full-time teachers in primary education meeting qualification requirements reached 99.99%, and 98.90% of them had at least a three-year college education.

The surface area in regular primary schools across the country covered 889,618,000 m 2 , 18,328,200 m 2 more than in the previous year. 2022 witnessed higher percentages of schools with facilities and equipment fulfilling applicable standards, as follows: 93.52% of schools met the sports ground area (stadium) requirements; 97.07% met sports equipment requirements; 96.81% met musical instrument requirements; 96.79% met art supply requirements; and 96.62% met laboratory tools and equipment requirements.

Large and oversized classes with 56 or more students numbered 13,800, which was 7,200 fewer than the previous year, accounting for 0.48% of the total number of classes and down 0.25 percentage points from the previous year.

2. Junior high schools

There were 52,500 junior high schools, with 51,206,000 registered students. Of them, 17,313,800 were newly enrolled in 2022.

Faculty and staff in junior high schools totaled 4,025,200. The number of full-time teachers meeting qualification requirements stood at 99.94%, and 91.71% of them had a four-year college education.

The surface area in junior high schools across the country covered 786,483,500 m 2 , 30,546,500 m 2 more than in the previous year. The percentages of schools with facilities and equipment fulfilling applicable standards were as follows: 95.68% of schools met the sports ground area (stadium) requirements; 98.08% met sports equipment requirements; 97.88% met musical instrument requirements; 97.88% met art supply requirements; and 97.75% met laboratory tools and equipment requirements.

Large and oversized classes of 56 or more students totaled 4,522, which was 2,703 fewer than the previous year, accounting for 0.40% of the total number of classes, and down 0.25 percentage points from the previous year.

3. Senior high schools

In 2022, the gross enrolment rate at the upper secondary level was 91.6%, 0.2 percentage points higher than the previous year.

There were 15,000 regular senior high schools across the country, an increase of 441 over the previous year. New entrants in these schools totaled 9,475,400, an increase of 4.71% over the previous year, and the registered students amounted to 27,138,700, an increase of 4.18% over the previous year.

There were 7,201 vocational senior high schools across the country, down 93 on the previous year. Newly enrolled students in 2022 numbered 4,847,800, down 0.86% from the previous year. Registered students in vocational senior high schools totaled 13,392,900, an increase of 2.09% from the previous year.

Faculty and staff in regular senior high schools totaled 2,133,200. The percentage of full-time teachers meeting qualification requirements reached 99.03%, with 13.08% holding a master’s degree.

Faculty and staff in vocational senior high schools totaled 718,300. The percentage of full-time teachers meeting qualification requirements reached 94.86%, with 8.91% holding a master’s degree. Dual-qualification teachers (with teaching and industry experience) accounted for 56.18% of full-time teaching staff, an increase of 0.67 percentage points from the previous year.

The total school building floor area in regular senior high schools increased 36,728,000 m 2 over the previous year to 680,349,000 m 2 . The percentages of schools with facilities and equipment fulfilling applicable standards were as follows: 94.46% of schools met the sports ground area (stadium) requirements; 96.50% met sports equipment requirements; 95.85% met musical instrument requirements; 96.05% met art supply requirements; and 96.18% met laboratory tools and equipment requirements.

The total school building floor area in regular senior high schools increased 7.39% over the previous year to 275,160,900 m 2 , and the per student building floor area was 20.55 m 2 . The per student value of educational facilities and equipment reached RMB 8,504.32.

III. Higher education

In 2022, gross enrollment in higher education reached 59.6%, 1.8 percentage points higher than the previous year.

China had 3,013 higher education institutions (HEIs). Among them, 1,239 were regular ones (164 independent colleges included). This included 32 polytechnic colleges, and 1,489 higher vocational education institutes. There was also a total of 253 adult higher education institutes. There were also 234 research institutions training postgraduate students. The number of registered students in all HEIs totaled 46.55 million across the country, an increase of 2.25 million over the previous year.

The number of registered students in all HEIs totaled 10,145,400 across the country, an increase of 6.11% over the previous year. Regular HEIs enrolled 4,679,400 students on average, an increase of 5.25% over the previous year. Vocational colleges enrolled 76,300 students, an increase of 84.39% over the previous year, while higher vocational education institutes enrolled 5,389,800 students, including 542,900 students in five-year programs beginning at junior high level.

The total number of enrolled postgraduate students grew by 5.61% to 1,242,500, of which 139,000 were for Doctoral degrees and 1,103,500 for Masters’ degrees. The number of registered postgraduate students stood at 3,653,600, an increase of 9.64% over the previous year. Doctoral students totaled 556,100 and 3,097,500 were Masters students.

4,000,200 students were newly enrolled in an undergraduate program in HEIs for adults, bringing the total number of registered students to 9,336,500; while 2,808,900 students were newly enrolled in online higher education programs, bringing the total number of registered students to 8,446,500.

There were 1,977,800 full-time teachers in higher education, including 1,315,800 in regular undergraduate colleges; 27,800 in undergraduate-level vocational colleges; 619,500 in higher vocational education institutes; and 14,700 in adult higher education schools. 78.54% have a Masters’ degree or above, up 1.04 percentage points from the previous year.

The total floor area of regular HEIs reached 1.1308055 billion m 2 , marking an increase of 3.97% on the previous year. The per student campus area was 51.63 m 2 , and the per student building floor area was 25.21 m 2 . The per student value of educational facilities and equipment reached RMB 17,527.82.

IV. Special education

There were 2,314 special schools across the country, an increase of 1.14% over the previous year. The total number of students receiving special education of all types was 146,300. Registered students receiving such education totaled 918,500, of which: those attending regular classes in regular schools numbered 335,700, accounting for 36.54% of the total number of registered students receiving special education across the country.

Full-time teachers totaled 72,700, an increase of 4.85% over the previous year.

V. Non-state education

In 2022, China had 178,300 privately run schools, accounting for 34.37% of all schools across the country. The number of students attending non-state schools was 52,827,200, accounting for 18.05% of all students in China.

More details are as follows:

- 160,500 non-state kindergartens, serving 21,267,800 children;

- 10,500 non-state primary and junior high schools, with 13,568,500 registered students, including 7,363,700 students under government funding;

- 4,300 non-state regular senior high schools, with 4,977,900 registered students;

- 2,073 non-state vocational senior high schools, with 2,762,400 registered students;

- 764 non-state higher education institutions (including 390 regular universities/colleges, 22 bachelor-degree-awarding vocational schools, 350 higher vocational education institutions, 2 higher education institutions for adults), with 9,248,900 attending.

ICP Registration Number: 10028400

© 2018 Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China. All Rights Reserved.

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Primary Education

In China, primary school education is compulsory and it lasts 6 years. Children start schools at age six (seven in some areas). The language of instruction is Mandarin Chinese with the exception of the primary schools that mainly admit ethnic minority students. A typical school year is comprised of two semesters and runs from the month of September to July. Students attend classes five days a week and primary school education currently includes nine compulsory courses, which include Chinese, Mathematics, Social Studies, Nature, Physical Education, Ideology and Morality, Music, Fine Art, and Labor Studies. Foreign Language is normally offered as an elective course. In order to graduate, all students are required to pass graduation examinations in the subjects of Chinese and Mathematics. The examinations are normally designed and administered by schools with guidance from local educational authorities. Students move on to 3-year junior (lower) secondary schools (chuzhong 初中) after graduating from primary schools. 

Middle Education

Junior (lower) secondary education lasts three years following the completion of primary school. In order for students to obtain a certificate of graduation, students are required to pass graduation examinations and meet minimum physical education standards. The graduation examinations are designed and administered by individual schools according to guidelines set by the provincial educational bureaus or by local educational authorities. Students are typically examined in the following subjects for graduation: Chinese, Mathematics, Chemistry, Physics, Foreign Language, and Politics. Completion of junior (lower) secondary education also marks the end of a 9-year (6+3) compulsory education program. 

Secondary Education

After the completion of junior (lower) secondary school, students can choose to enter either general (academic) senior secondary school or vocational senior secondary school. General (academic) senior secondary school lasts 3 years and vocational senior secondary school lasts 3 or 4 years. Senior secondary school is known as (gaozhong 高中) and vocational senior secondary school is known as (zhongzhuan 中专) in China. Students wishing to continue their study in the general (academic) track must pass the entrance examinations for general senior secondary schools, which is also known as (zhongkao 中考) in China. Designed and administered by provincial educational authorities, the entrance examination includes the same subjects as the junior secondary graduation examination. At the end of their final school year, graduates of senior secondary schools seeking admission to post-secondary education are required to take the National Higher Education Entrance Examination, also called National College Entrance Examination (NCEE), commonly known as (gaokao 高考) in China.

Vocational Education

Vocational education programs are offered at both the secondary and post-secondary levels. Vocational senior secondary schools provide subject and occupation specific education and training. Vocational senior secondary education is highly employment oriented and graduates normally enter the workforce. However, it does offer some access to further education, particularly in the technical/vocational specialties. Since the year 2000, the Ministry of Education (MOE) has allowed graduates of vocational secondary schools to take the NCEE and be admitted into higher education programs. 

Higher technical/vocational education is available at the zhuanke (专科) level, which require two or three years of full-time post-secondary study. It is possible for graduates of higher vocational education programs at the zhuanke level to obtain a "benke 本科" degree (Bachelor’s degree) certificate through an upgrading program, but in a limited number of fields. Vocational higher education institutions are currently administered at the provincial level. 

Tertiary Education

Higher education is provided by institutions of various types including general and technical universities, specialized institutions, professional universities, military institutions, medical schools and colleges, independent colleges, and adult higher education institutions of various types. Entry to university depends primarily on how well the students perform in the entrance examinations. Students with outstanding academic performance in their secondary schools can also possibly be granted an exemption from the entrance examination and be recommended directly to the university of their choice through a method called (baosong 保送). In addition, some private institutions are exempted from the NCEE (gaokao) and accept all students who can afford the tuition fees. Prestigious universities (key institutions) maintain higher admission standards, and therefore require higher NCEE (gaokao) scores than other institutions. Entry to higher education in China is highly competitive.

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China's Education System: The Oldest in the World

By Chelsea Shieh

It may sound incredible, but China’s formal education system—the oldest in the world—was established nearly two millennia ago. The imperial education and examination system in China is estimated to have been founded as early as the Han dynasty (206 BCE to 220 CE), and is strongly based on meritocratic ideals that persist in Chinese education to this day. Because of China’s expansion over the centuries, its education system reflects the country’s need to find the most efficient and fair way to measure students’ academic capabilities.

One of the longest legacies of the imperial education tradition is the (in)famous Gaokao , or the National College Entrance Examination, which is the sole determining factor of a student’s eligibility to enroll in universities. Every year on June 7 and 8, nine million students take the Gaokao. In the U.S., there are multiple elements in a student’s college application, including a transcript, personal essays, SAT/ACT scores, and recommendation letters; in China, a student’s score on the Gaokao is the only factor that determines their eligibility to enroll in university. The higher their score, the more prestigious the university they can attend. This might sound extremely stressful and intimidating—indeed, for most Chinese secondary school students, the Gaokao is the culmination of their past twelve years of schooling.

Prior to taking the exam, students must choose between the humanities track and science track. This decision is usually made in a student’s first year of high school, and it determines which subject they will be tested on in the Gaokao, in addition to the three mandatory subjects of Chinese, math, and a foreign language. The Gaokao is administered only once a year, making it one of the highest pressure examinations in the entire world. Those who don’t perform well on this high-stakes exam end up with few options—many will spend the following year studying in preparation to re-take the exam, while others choose to find low-level jobs and opt out of higher education altogether. Nevertheless, in a country that prizes education, success or failure on the Gaokao is viewed as the greatest determining factor of how a person will live out the rest of his or her life.

But what happens to Chinese students after they get into college? As you may expect, Chinese students tend to become more laid-back after they enter college, given that they’ve overcome the humongous obstacle of the Gaokao. They now have more time to join extracurricular activities, hang out with friends, or even pursue romantic relationships. For students in China, high school is definitely the roughest part of their education experience; after working so hard, perhaps they deserve to have a little more freedom and fun in their college years!

China’s higher education statistics have exploded in the past twenty-five years. In 1990, only four percent of 18 to 22 year olds were pursuing higher education; by 2014, that number had increased almost tenfold, to 37.5 percent. This education boom has to do with a number of factors, including a rapidly growing middle class, economic expansion, and government policies. As of 2016, there are approximately seven million Chinese graduates of higher education that are seeking jobs in the labor market. However, there are drawbacks to this education boom as well. The government has been criticized for focusing too much on the top-tier universities, and creating an imbalance in the quality of education available across the country.

Let’s take a closer look at China’s university education system, which is currently the largest higher education system in the world. Despite its long history, China’s present-day university system has been strongly influenced by Western education traditions. Academic departments, requirements, and student living are all based on the Western style of university education. Nevertheless, the Chinese university system still contains qualities unique to China’s history and economic development. For example, the majority of the best universities in China are all public universities that are government-funded. Private universities are beginning to increase in number, but they have a mixed reputation and variable quality. Another unique aspect of Chinese university education lies in the teaching and learning experience. Professors in China have historically been highly venerated, and to this day students are still expected to respect their teachers to a great degree. This, as you may imagine, creates a very different learning experience for students at Chinese universities.

In fact, there has been growing criticism and concern, from both foreigners and Chinese citizens alike, about the quality and methods of teaching and learning at Chinese higher education institutions. The desire for China’s economy to leave the manufacturing stage and establish itself as the most important and powerful economy in the world has created a strong desire to see China put out innovators and entrepreneurs to establish the Apple or Google of China. Yet many young Chinese people lament China’s relative lack of equivalent figures. They criticize Chinese-style education as suppressing creativity and individuality. Rote memorization, a core teaching method in Chinese schools, is the main culprit in their eyes.

In a study on the teaching quality of higher education in China, published in the journal Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education , scholars found that many students complained of teachers failing to train independent thinking in their students, and prioritizing a “surface” approach to learning as opposed to striving for a “deep” understanding of the material. So why can’t these Chinese professors change their teaching methods? The answer could lie in the Confucian concept mentioned earlier—teachers have the ability to lead others toward knowledge and a better life. This idea, while it has morphed and been distilled throughout the centuries, still exists in the minds of many Chinese teachers. Thus, many Chinese teachers and professors teach in a lecture style, not allowing much room or time for questions or discussion with the students. Students are still mainly expected to be deferential toward their teachers by listening to them.

Chinese students are increasingly seeking options to customize their education to their best needs and interests. In fact, many Chinese students are increasingly opting to study abroad at foreign universities; the U.S. in particular is the top destination for these students. Not only are these students turned off by the fierce competition for admission to top-tier Chinese universities, but also they may be drawn to the prestige and reputation of American universities, as well as the more holistic teaching style of American education that privileges class participation and seminar discussions. Also, China’s rapid economic growth has also resulted in many Chinese citizens able to afford the tuition of studying abroad. Hence, there are currently more than 300,000 Chinese students studying in the U.S., enrolled in both undergraduate and graduate studies.

Nonetheless, the Chinese education system is still one of the most rigorous and esteemed education systems in the world. Millions of young students work hard and study every day with the belief that education is the golden ticket to a better life. With increasing Western globalization and culture clash, the Chinese education system is facing some existential quandaries as to how it can be revised to fit the needs of its country’s students.

Chelsea Shieh is a senior at Columbia University, majoring in Anthropology with a concentration in East Asian Languages and Cultures. She studied abroad at Tsinghua University in Beijing during the fall of 2015.

Sources “ Education in China ,” World Education News & Reviews , March 7, 2016. Accessed 5 January 2017.

David Matthews, “ Assessing China’s Academic Orbit ,” China Household Finance Survey, March 20, 2015. Accessed 5 January 2017.

Keith Bradsher, “ Next Made-In-China Boom: College Graduates ,” The New York Times , January 16, 2013. Accessed 5 January 2017.

Tessa Wong, “ China’s gaokao: High Stakes for National Exam ,” BBC News , June 9, 2015. Accessed 5 January 2017.

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How Does Education in China Compare with Other Countries?

Innovation is a critical component of national power.  It propels countries to develop new products or methods of production that drive economic progress and enable states to tackle transnational challenges, such as climate change and global health crises. The ability of a country to cultivate its capacity for innovation rests with its domestic education system. A well-educated workforce is instrumental to technological and scientific discovery, which can propel states to the apex of the increasingly innovation-based global economy.  This need is particularly salient for China as its leaders seek to push the Chinese economy up the global value chain.

Primary and Secondary Education

In an effort to promote sustainable development, Chinese leaders have sought to improve educational quality and increase access across the country. The most notable government policy, the 1986 Law on Nine-Year Compulsory Education , called for achievement of the ‘two basics’ ( liangji ): universal enrollment among school-aged children (6-15 years) and full literacy among those under the age of 20. Other measures have centered on revising the national curriculum and enhancing teacher training programs.

Yet educational access remains uneven in China. Students born into affluent families generally have greater access to high-quality education than those from lower income backgrounds. Data from the National Bureau of Statistics suggest that urban residents in China enjoy a nearly threefold income advantage over their rural counterparts. The household registration system ( hukou ) has further widened this development gap by restricting the internal movement of persons.  Education-finance policies requiring local governments to bear partial responsibility for funding schools have compounded this issue, leaving less affluent areas without sufficient resources to pay skilled teachers, purchase necessary instruction materials, and maintain school facilities.

Migration from rural areas has forced the closure of village schools, contributing to the decrease in Chinese primary schools from 668,685 in 1995 to 201,377 in 2014.

Literacy is a baseline indicator of educational access. High levels of literacy serve as the foundation for improved access to information and directly enhance an individual’s ability to contribute to society.  As of 2011, China had all but eliminated illiteracy among young and middle-aged citizens – a landmark achievement for a country with the world’s largest population. Nevertheless, provincial variations reveal the incomplete nature of China’s ongoing development. Wealthy cities, such as Beijing and Shanghai, reported 2014 literacy rates (98.52 percent and 96.85 percent) comparable with those of developed countries. At the other extreme, Tibet’s literacy rate was a mere 60.07 percent in same year, pegging it closer to under-developed countries like Haiti and Zambia.

Regional variations in educational access become more evident when considering the average length of schooling per student. To assess the role education plays in evaluating economic development and quality of life, the United Nations calculates the Education Index (EI) as part of its annually released Human Development Index (HDI). EI is calculated from mean and expected years of schooling and ranges from 0 (no educational attainment) to 1 (theoretically perfect educational attainment). EI values vary widely across China. In 2014, Beijing enjoyed a high EI of 0.854, which closely matches that of Iceland (0.853), an OECD country that ranks sixth on the Human Development Index . EI is lowest in Tibet, whose value of 0.45, when compared to EI values from around the world, places it in the bottom 20 percent.

Education Index by Income Level

Income-levels correspond to the World Bank’s development classification, which uses GNI per capita (Atlas method) to calculate the levels of development.

Urbanization has exaggerated regional differences in educational access. The movement of people from rural to urban areas within China in search of employment opportunities and higher wages is among the largest internal migrations  in human history. Migration from rural areas has forced the closure of village schools, contributing to the decrease in Chinese primary schools from 668,685 in 1995  to 201,377 in 2014 . Rural migrants have flooded the labor market in urban centers, including Beijing and Shanghai, such that migrant laborers comprise roughly one-third of China’s total labor force . These population shifts have contributed to overcrowded classrooms , which may come under even greater strain as the number of children of migrant workers residing in China’s biggest cities is expected to increase by 1.5 million annually.

More developed regions have managed to offset much of this demographic shift. Some of China’s most densely populated areas compare favorably with cities in the United States in terms of student-teacher ratios. The average number of students per teacher in primary and secondary schools in Beijing and Shanghai is 15:1 and 14:1, respectively.  By comparison, New York City and Los Angeles have elementary and secondary school student-teacher ratios of 15:1 and 21:1 , respectively. Chinese classrooms also have fewer students per teacher than the global average at both the primary and secondary level.

Less economically developed regions often suffer from the migration of qualified teachers to more developed parts of the country and lack adequate funds to hire and properly train instructors. Despite generally lower population density levels than urban areas, limited economic resources manifest in fewer, less-qualified teachers per student.  Guangxi province, for instance, has primary and secondary student-teacher ratios of 20:1 and 24:1. These patterns are mirrored in less developed regions around the world. According to a 2013 United Nations report , adolescents residing in rural areas of developing countries are less likely to have access to institutions with favorable student-teacher ratios. In India, insufficient funding has resulted in national primary and secondary student-teacher ratios of at 29:1 and 34:1 , respectively.

In order to address these imbalances, the central government has implemented policies to realign  education funding. The National Plan for Medium- and Long-term Education Reform and Development (2010-2020) set ambitious achievement targets for primary and secondary education. The plan emphasizes the need to boost scientific and technological innovation by developing China’s human-resource base.  Stated goals include universalizing preschool education and improving the nine-year compulsory education system through the “rational allocation” of resources and provision of “special support” to the less fortunate.

Local governments are also taking action to tackle disparities in education access. Shenzhen has waived school fees and Shanghai has offered legal status and funding for migrant children. The Ministry of Education has vowed to crack down on arbitrary fees , which allow some families to send their children to better schools outside the student’s home province. Additionally, the Chinese government passed the Compulsory Education Law in 2006 to galvanize local reform, prompting cities such as Wuhan to develop policies that allow migrant children living in urban areas to attend local schools without the requisite urban hukou .

Tertiary Education

Tertiary education, generally understood as post-secondary school learning supported by universities, technical training institutes, community colleges, and research laboratories, is essential to a country’s competitiveness in an increasingly innovation-driven global economy. Over the last decade, China has made considerable strides in advancing tertiary education, with the number of institutions more than doubling and government expenditures increasing from $52.66 billion in 2003 to $311 billion in 2014. The 211 Project and 985 Project , initiatives designed to raise research standards and cultivate rencai (people with talent), further demonstrate the effort Chinese leaders are making to modernize the country’s education system.

At present, however, the quality of Chinese universities lags behind that of other countries. The Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2016-2017, a widely respected London-based university measure, includes only two Chinese institutions among the top 100 universities worldwide.  Peking and Qinghua universities place 29th and 25th respectively, among the 978 tertiary institutions featured in the world ranking. By comparison, the study found that the United States is home to fifteen of the top twenty universities in the world. University rankings released by Shanghai Ranking Consultancy also reflect this division. Qinghua and Peking universities rank 58 th and 71 st in the consultancy’s global comparison.  China’s 3 rd and 4 th nationally-ranked universities , Zhejiang and Fudan, fail to make the top 100.

China’s top universities are highly selective. Peking University does not publicize its admission rates, but applicants from Beijing are believed to have a 0.5 percent chance of acceptance, which is up to 40 times higher than applicants from elsewhere in the country. When compared globally, Peking University’s low admission rate reveals the exceptionally competitive nature of tertiary education in China. Two of the world’s most well-regarded higher education institutions in the United States, Harvard University and Stanford University, have admission rates around 5 percent. In the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge have acceptance rates over 17 percent.

The structure of the national admissions process further compounds this disparity.  College hopefuls are bound by their hukou (household registration) and performance on the gaokao, China’s National Higher Education Entrance Examination. Every year, universities set quotas for how many applicants may be admitted from each province. Institutions allocate the highest number of spots to applicants from the institution’s home province, and typically preferential treatment is given to urban residents from elsewhere for the remaining spots. Consequently, students from rural or lower-income Chinese provinces must often score significantly higher on the gaokao than their counterparts with urban hukou in order to be admitted into the same institution.  

China and India supply almost half of (46.4 percent) the global 6.4 million Science and Engineering bachelor’s degrees.

Chinese universities are generally understood to be divided into four tiers , with Tier 1 encompassing universities designated to receive substantial central government funding to develop China as a world-class research center . The cutoff gaokao scores ( fenshuxian ) required for admission into each tier are determined annually, but a student’s chances for acceptance usually depend on the difficulty of the gaokao , university quotas, academic interests, and their hukou . A high number of Tier-1 institutions are concentrated in wealthy municipalities and provinces, which earmarks them for more government funding than their lower-ranking counterparts.  Specifically, five of the top ten universities in China are located in Beijing and Shanghai.

Tertiary enrollment rates further reflect China’s stark urban-rural education divide. On the national level, just over a quarter of the country’s college-age population is enrolled in a tertiary institution.  Shanghai, one of China’s wealthiest municipality, boasts an enrollment rate of 70 percent, while provinces like Guangxi suffer from enrollment rates below 20 percent. A similar trend surfaces when comparing countries across the globe. Highly developed countries in North America and Western Europe have tertiary enrollment rates averaging around 75 percent.  Conversely, in developing regions in Central Asia , just over a quarter of the population attains tertiary education.

Many of those who attend Chinese universities pursue degrees in science and engineering fields.  According to the 2016 Science and Engineering Indicators Report , China and India supply almost half of (46.4 percent) the global 6.4 million Science and Engineering (S&E) bachelor’s degrees. The two countries are projected to collectively account for two-thirds of the increase in global S&E graduates through 2030 . By comparison, the European Union and United States supplied 11.5 percent and 9.2 percent, respectively, of the global share of S&E graduates.

This outpouring of S&E graduates may present its own problems for China as it seeks to transition to a consumer-driven economy.  A Qinghua and Fudan University joint study observed a gap between China’s supply and its need for highly skilled labor. Specifically, western provinces have skills shortages in fields such as research and development and capital operation , and eastern provinces lack skilled technical workers . Moreover, high-skilled workers often seek opportunities in the same cities , which can lead to an excess of job hunters in a particular market. In 2013, the tertiary education system supplied more highly-skilled workers than the economy demanded, resulting in a new-graduate unemployment rate more than three times higher than the national average.  Educational attainment outstripping market demands is not unique to China. In South Korea, recent graduates face a highly competitive job market with scarce employment opportunities , forcing some students to linger at university.

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Benchmarking the Performance of China's Education System

• China (People's Republic of)
• Education and skills
• Student performance (PISA)
• Learning environment
• Teachers and educators
• Education organisation and governance
• Reading literacy
• Mathematics literacy
• Science literacy
• Learning in the digital world
• Teacher employment
• Teacher practices
• Teacher working conditions
• School autonomy
• Class size and student-teacher ratios
• Curriculum and instruction time
• Education infrastructure
• Learning time and disciplinary climate
• Student engagement and motivation
• Students’ well-being

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This report provides an assessment of both the strengths and potential areas for improvement of the education system of the People’s Republic of China. It articulates the inputs and outputs of China’s education system, brings in up-to-date policies and practices implemented in China, and provides an in-depth analysis on how China’s education system is performing in four overarching dimensions: learning environment, curriculum and teaching practices, student outcomes and education governance. Additionally, this report compares China with other high performing education systems to show the common or divergent patterns between them, offering insights for education systems around the world.

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Education in China

To serve the needs of over 1 billion people, China has developed a vast and thorough state administered public education system. The Chinese education system offers schooling from pre-school to graduate school and mandates that every child receive a basic education.

However, with such a large population, there is extreme pressure put on the students to excel , as space in the best senior secondary schools and universities are limited. Students who desire higher education must take two very difficult tests, each only offered once a year.

The Ministry of Education

The Ministry of Education, headquartered in Beijing, is the state department responsible for the education system in China. In their mission to "modernize China through education", they certify teachers, standardize textbooks and curriculum, and enforce national education standards.

The Law of Nine-Year Compulsory Education

The Law of Nine-Year Compulsory Education took affect July 1, 1986 and established deadlines and requirements in an effort to attain a universal education for all school aged children. The law requires that all children attend school for a minimum of nine years.

Although the bill authorizes tuition free education for the compulsory nine years, this remains a target rather than a reality. The government does work to reduce the cost of tuition and supplies and also provide stipends for poor families.

History of the Modern Education of China

From 1911-1949.

The elder statesmen from the Revolution of 1911, He Ziyuan (1865-1941) and Qiu Fengjia (1864-1912), successfully established some Western-style schools, such as Yunandong Primary School (in 1885), Tongren School (1888) and Xingmin School (1903) in Guangdong Province in the late 19th century, symbolizing the birth of Chinas modern education. Under such a great pressure, the Qing government carried out a series of reforms on education, and abolished the old-fashioned imperial examination system and then established modern schools across the nation in 1905. It was not until 1909 that the local civil service examination system was completely terminated; instead, the Western-style schools sprung up all over China, which fostered numerous talents for the Republic of China (1911-1949).

From 1949 -

Since the foundation of the PRC in 1949, the Chinese education system has been modeled on the Soviet Unions education system (a 'spoon-feeding education system), and a number of comprehensive universities were established one after another in China. Owing to many industrial and technical talents badly needing to set up a complete modern industrial system at the beginning of the foundation of the PRC, the former comprehensive universities were divided into vocational and technical colleges by the Chinese government; at the same time, the college entrance examination system had been established by 1955. It was canceled later owing to the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) which was started by Mao Zedong (1893-1976). The Cultural Revolution wasted the talents of a whole generation, leaving millions of students with a lost opportunity to get educated. The intellects were not venerated by the society during the Cultural Revolution, and they met with severe persecution and their properties were confiscated; they were even branded the "stinking ninth category" (a term of abuse by ultra-Leftists for teachers and other educated people in the 1966-1976 Cultural Revolution, next to landlords, reactionaries and even spies).

It was not until 1977 that the college entrance examination was resumed by Deng Xiaoping (1904-1997). Though education for all-round development has been put forth since 1995, the learning pressure for the Chinese students has never been alleviated, and the number of continuation classes for them are increasing year by year. The college enrollment expanding policy has been implemented since the 1990s, enabling numerous students to realize their dream of going to college, however, the employment outlook looks gloomy owing to the higher pressure of competition.

The education fee has rocketed rapidly in recent years owing to the policy of industrialization of education, which is a heavy burden for the families from rural areas to bear. Great changes have taken place in the Chinese education system since 1990, and the Chinese central government has allowed private capital to enter into the field of education. A large number of private schools have sprung up across China in recent years, making the tendency of selecting schools for students more and more popular.

Modern Education System

The modern education system of China is composed of three parts: pre-school education, basic education and higher education. The Chinese government made a law for a free nine-year compulsory education (six years of primary education and three years of secondary education) on July 1, 1986, which established the requirements for attaining a universal education and guaranteed school-age children the right to receive at least nine years of education. Its considered to be a crime for the parents to deprive their children of this right in cities of China.

Schools in China are divided into four levels.

• Primary school, for children ages 6 to 11, covers the first six years of their compulsory education.
• After primary school, students continue on to junior middle school. In junior middle school students will complete grades 7, 8, and 9, as well as their compulsory education requirement.
• If students choose tom continue with their education they will advance to senior middle school, the equivalent of high school in the United States, and finish grades 10, 11, and 12.
• Afterward, they will have the option of attending university or entering the workforce.

Pre-School Education

As usual, the pre-school education starts at age three and ends at age six, and it was also known as a kindergarten education in China. A kindergarten is generally divided into three levels: Lower Kindergarten (Xiaoban) for three to four years old children, Middle Kindergarten (Zhongban) for four to five years old children and Upper Kindergarten (Daban) for five to six years old children. The kindergarten provides three meals a day for children, where they spend most of their time playing indoor and outdoor games. Most kindergarten teachers are from childcare schools and are good at singing and dancing, and they are responsible for taking care of the children.

Basic Education

Basic education in China is composed of an elementary school education, a junior high school education, a senior high school education and a vocational school education. The junior high school education and the senior high school education together are called the nine-year compulsory education in China.

Elementary School Education

The elementary school education usually starts at age six and ends at age 12, and the pupils are absolutely tuition-free under the law of the nine-year compulsory education. As a result, they usually prefer to attend a primary school in their own village for convenience.

The elementary school system is slightly different between urban and rural areas of China. The elementary schools have six grades (from grade one to grade six) in urban areas and five grades (from grade one to grade five) in some rural areas. The entrance examination from elementary school to junior high school has been canceled since the 1990s in cities. The curriculum includes Chinese, math, English, PE (physical education), music, drawing, science, and morality and ethics in primary schools. However, only Chinese, math and PE are set up in many rural areas.

Junior High School Education

The junior high school education usually starts at age 13 and ends at age 15. There are three ways for pupils to enter junior high school from elementary school in cities: by a computer aided allocation system, by selecting a school and by the proximity principle.

Computer aided allocation means the pupils are randomly distributed to a junior high school, which is comparatively equal for everybody. Most parents would rather select well-equipped schools (both in hard and soft infrastructures) for their children although they would need to pay some extra money. The proximity principle means the pupils prefer entering a junior high school in their neighborhood.

The curriculum of junior high school consists of Chinese, math, English, physics, chemistry, history, politics, geography, biology, PE, IT (information technology), music and drawing, which is also combined with practical work experience around the school. The students whose final grades of all subjects are above 60 are allowed to graduate from junior high school and are admitted to senior high school, and those who fail it will stay down at the same level for one year.

Senior High School Education

The senior high school education usually starts at age 16 and ends at age 18. The junior high school graduate students can either study in a senior high school or at a vocational school. Owing to the high tuition fees of senior high schools (usually ranging from 4,000 to 6,000 RMB each year), most students from rural areas choose to study in vocational schools so as to get a job as soon as they graduate.

Senior high schools are very popular among the cities of China, through which most parents hope their children will go to college. Usually, only those who get high scores in the (senior high school) enrollment examination can enter the key senior high schools. Senior high school is divided into three stages: elementary stage in Senior One, transitory stage in Senior Two and the college entrance exam preparation stage in Senior Three. The curriculum of senior high school consists of Chinese, math, English (Russian or Japanese in some urban areas), physics, chemistry, biology, geography, history, morality and ethics, PE, health and IT.

Bureaus of education at all levels in China stipulate that Saturday and Sunday are rest days for all the senior high schools. However, most senior high schools have their own countermeasures, and they make it a rule for students to self-study in the mornings and evenings and even on weekends.

The senior high students are overloaded with studies and a lack of rest, with the aim of passing the college entrance examination held in June each year.

Higher Education

The higher education (usually known as college education) usually starts when pupils are over 18, and its composed of tertiary vocational school (two or three years), a technological academy (three years) and an undergraduate school (four years), but only undergraduate school students will get their bachelors degree.

The undergraduate school students can continue their education through a graduate record examination, and those who pass it will study in a graduate school for three years and get their Masters degree. Those who get their Masters degree can apply to pursue a PhD degree, and it usually takes about three years to graduate.

Top 10 Universities of China

The Top 10 Universities of China have been well selected according to their comprehensive strength (both in hardware and software) by China Education Ministry in 2013, which are listed as follows:

• Perking University ( No. 5, Yiheyuan Road, Haidian District, Beijing)
• Tsing-Hua University ( No.1, Qinghuayuan, Haidian District, Beijing)
• Fudan University (No. 220, Handan Road. Shanghai)
• Zhejiang University ( No.38 Zheda Road, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province)
• Shanghai Jiao Tong University ( No. 1954, Huashan Road, Xuhui District, Shanghai)
• Nanjing University (No. 22 Hankou Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province)
• Zhongshan University ( No. 135, Xingang Xi Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province)
• Wuhan University (No. 16, Gejiashan, Wuchang District, Wuhan, Hubei Province)
• Chinese University of Science and Technology (No. 96, Jinzhai Road, Hefei, Anhui Province)
• Jilin University ( No.1505 Linyuan Road, Changchun, Jilin Province)

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Schools in China: An Insightful Guide on Chinese Education

Meet  David De’ Ath , founder, editor, and writer at Wonderful World English. With his extensive background as an English teacher, David provides valuable insights and practical tips on ESL for students and teachers alike.

Education in China is a complex and diverse system, overseen by the Ministry of Education.

It is characterized by a state-run public system that emphasizes the importance of education in modern China. 

From the age of six, Chinese students embark on a minimum of nine years of compulsory education, starting with six years in elementary school, followed by three years in junior secondary school. 

After this compulsory phase, many students continue to senior secondary school and, potentially, to higher education institutions.

Chinese education has evolved over time to become one of the largest in the world, emphasizing values and also aiming to equip students with necessary skills. 

With an array of schools across various cities, the educational landscape in China is marked by its scale and ambition. 

Schools follow a national curriculum with local adaptations, ensuring that students across the country receive a consistent level of education, with a focus on hard sciences, mathematics, and increasingly, English language learning.

Key Takeaways

• China’s education system is state-led and provides at least nine years of compulsory schooling.
• The curriculum is standardized, with a focus on science, math, and language, adapted to regional contexts.
• Education is highly valued, with schools spread across key cities and regions in China.

Overview of Education in China

Education in China has undergone remarkable transformations, with a  compulsory education law  mandating nine years of education. 

Under the Ministry of Education, China has a high  literacy rate  and invests about  4% of its total GDP  in the education sector.

Chinese National Curriculum

China’s national curriculum is standardized and overseen by the  Ministry of Education .

It emphasizes  Mandarin  as the medium of instruction and Chinese culture. 

Literacy  and numeracy are foundational, with a heavy emphasis on mathematics and sciences.

The curriculum aims to prepare students for higher education and the modern workforce.

Related: What Subjects Are Taught in China? (An Overview)

International and Bilingual Schools

International and bilingual schools  in China cater to both  international students  and Chinese nationals seeking an international education. 

These schools often offer International Baccalaureate (IB) or curricula from other countries, providing a diverse learning environment. 

This sector has seen growth, demonstrating China’s engagement with global education trends.

Public vs Private Schools

China’s education system comprises both  public and private schools . 

Public schools  are funded by the government and are the mainstay for  compulsory education , while  private schools are on the rise, offering alternative curricula and teaching methods. 

About  34.37%  of schools are privately run, showing an openness to varied educational models within China.

Private school schedules vary from school to school in China.

Primary schools often begin their day at 8am and will finish at 4pm from Monday to Friday (excluding public holidays).

Older students are often expected to study from morning to evening, especially when running up to exam times.

Public school classes are 40 minutes long and can have up to fifty students a class.

Key Cities for Education

China’s metropolises are often the focal points of its vast and diverse educational landscape, with several key cities standing out for their exceptional educational facilities. 

These urban centers boast some of the most prestigious schools and universities in the country, reflecting a deep investment in scholastic excellence.

Beijing’s Educational Hub

Beijing, the capital city, is a powerhouse in education, known for prestigious institutions like Tsinghua University and Peking University. 

As the political and cultural center, it attracts a significant number of students from across the nation, offering an intense, competitive environment. 

The city’s emphasis on education is further manifested in its substantial public and private investment into the sector.

Shanghai’s Diverse Schools

Shanghai prides itself on a cosmopolitan approach to education, housing a variety of schools that cater to both local and international communities. 

Pudong, a district of Shanghai, is particularly notable for its educational facilities, with various international schools and state-of-the-art campuses enhancing Shanghai’s educational diversity.

Shanghai is one of the most popular cities for expats wanting to experience the best of China.

If you’re a native English speaker with a degree, how do you fancy experiencing Shanghai in all its glory?

We have plenty of jobs available for teachers in Shanghai, so click the link below for more information!

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Guangzhou and Shenzhen’s Growing Influence

In the southern region of China, Guangzhou and Shenzhen in Guangdong Province stand as burgeoning educational hubs. 

These cities have seen rapid development, with their local governments prioritizing educational growth to attract talent and investment. 

This region is becoming increasingly influential, with educational quality rising to meet international standards.

Schools and Curricula

In China, the landscape of international education is rich and varied, hosting a range of curricula including the International Baccalaureate, American, British, French, and German standards, each serving different educational philosophies and student needs within international schools.

International Baccalaureate and Its Reach

The  International Baccalaureate (IB)  program is renowned for its rigorous academic and personal standards, exemplifying a blend of global perspectives with a strong academic foundation. 

Many  international schools in China  have adopted the IB curriculum due to its emphasis on students becoming active, compassionate, and lifelong learners who understand that other people, with their differences, can also be right.

American and British Standards

American and British curricula  are also prevalent in international schools across China. 

These schools often cater to expatriates yet also attract local students by offering the Advanced Placement (AP) program or the globally recognized General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) and A-Levels. 

China’s education reforms have enabled these international curricula to thrive, resulting in a dynamic and flexible educational environment.

German and French Educational Footprint

The  German and French educational systems  have left a distinctive footprint in China with specialized international schools that offer curricula aligned with the educational standards of their home countries. 

These institutions aim to provide not just language proficiency but also academic qualifications recognized in Germany and France, accommodating the needs of German and French nationals as well as international families seeking alternative educational pathways.

Important Considerations

When exploring schools in China, several key factors demand attention, including financial aspects of education, the availability of diverse learning experiences beyond the classroom, and the implications of schooling on higher education opportunities.

Tuition and Enrollment Process

Tuition Fees:  Public schools in China generally do not charge tuition for compulsory education, which covers primary and junior secondary education. 

However, for senior secondary and higher education, including  top universities , tuition fees are a significant consideration. 

Private and international schools, offering programs like the  International Baccalaureate  (IB) and  IGCSE , typically command higher tuition fees.

Enrollment:  Admission into educational institutions, especially prestigious ones, is highly competitive. 

The enrollment process can involve entrance examinations that assess a student’s  academic excellence  and  education level . 

It’s critical for prospective students to be aware of these requirements well in advance.

Extra-Curricular Opportunities

China’s educational landscape recognizes the importance of  extra-curricular activities  as instrumental in fostering diverse talents. 

Schools across China are increasingly incorporating various  extra-curricular opportunities , including sports, arts, and science clubs, which contribute to the holistic development of students. 

Participation in such programs can enhance a student’s profile for university admissions and cultivate interests that support life-long learning and personal growth.

Graduate Outcomes and University Admissions

The pathway from school to higher education in China is heavily influenced by the results of the  Gaokao , China’s national college entrance examination.

University Admissions  are primarily determined by Gaokao scores.

Some institutions also consider other factors like  extra-curricular achievements  and performance in international standardized tests such as the  SAT .

Graduate Outcomes  are tied to the prestige of the university attended, which impacts employment opportunities and career paths.

For a complete guide on how you can become an English teacher in China, check out the link below!

Related: How to Teach English in China: Your Ultimate Guide

China’s education system, underpinned by a minimum of nine years of compulsory education, emphasizes a blend of traditional values and modern skills, preparing students for global engagement.

With a standardized curriculum focused on Mandarin, science, math, and English, the system offers diverse educational pathways through public, private, and international schools, particularly in major cities like Beijing and Shanghai.

International curricula, such as the IB and American or British programs, cater to a range of needs, reflecting China’s commitment to global education standards.

Financial considerations and competitive enrollment processes are pivotal in school selection, while extra-curricular activities enhance holistic student development.

Ultimately, China’s educational landscape is a dynamic mix of tradition and innovation, aiming to equip students for success in higher education and beyond, with the Gaokao exam playing a key role in university admissions.

We hope you find value in this information; you can  contact us  if you require any support.

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Stanford Center on China’s Economy and Institutions is a joint effort of the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies and Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research .

The High Cost of Education in China

The high cost of education in china [ 5 min read ].

• China’s households spend on average 17.1% of their annual income and 7.9% of their total annual expenditures on education, surpassing Japan, Mexico, and the U.S. (1–2%) by significant margins.  
• 73% of household education expenditure is dedicated to in-school expenses such as tuition and school fees, while 12% is allocated to extra-curricular activities and tutoring.
• China’s lower-income households allocate 56.8% of their income towards their children’s education, compared to 10.6% among China’s higher-income households.  
• Researchers attribute China’s outsized household expenditure on education to an insufficient supply of high-quality educational opportunities coupled with a high demand for such education that may contribute to declining fertility and low consumption.   

Source Publication: Dezhuang Hu, Hongbin Li, Tang Li, Lingsheng Meng, and Binh Thai Nguyen (2023). The Burden of Education Costs in China: A Struggle for All, but Heavier for Lower-Income Families. SSRN working paper.

Read this brief on SUBSTACK

In 2021, China’s government banned the multi-billion-dollar private tutoring industry, ostensibly to reduce education costs for families. Despite the attention these policy changes have received, little is known about how much families actually spend on education in China. Researchers used a nationally representative dataset to quantify household education expenditures across China, assess what proportion of household income goes to education, and explore how the financial burdens of education vary across different income levels.  

The data. Researchers employ data from the longitudinal China Family Panel Studies survey conducted by the Institute of Social Science Survey at Peking University in 2010, 2012, 2014, 2016, and 2018, that includes detailed information on household income and expenditures. They then constructed a nationally representative sample consisting of 23,786 households with 30,953 children aged 25 or younger who are currently attending school, and their parents.  

Researchers then isolated education expenses from other household expenses and divided them into three categories: in-school expenses (e.g., tuition, school fees, books, and food), extra-curricular activities and tutoring expenses (e.g., arts, sports, and academic-related activities), and other education-related expenses (e.g., transportation, software, and stationery). Finally, they explored the relationship between education expenses and household income. 

 Percent of household expenditure spent on education by country

Highest household education expenditures in the world. The researchers find that families average RMB 8,464 (USD 1,207) per year in education expenditures, which accounts for 17.1% of their annual income. Education expenditures increase with the number of children within the household regardless of the child’s gender, indicating that larger families allocate more resources to education. Urban families spend 14.8% more of their income on their child’s education than rural families.    

China’s families spend 7.9% of  their total annual household expenditures on education, surpassing any other country. Japan, Mexico, and the U.S., for example, typically allocate 1–2% of household expenditures toward education. While Korea’s share of 5.3% ranks second, it still falls significantly short of China’s share.

In-school expenses constitute majority of expenditures . In contrast to the focus on the private tutoring ban, only 12% of households’ education expenditures is dedicated to extra-curricular activities and tutoring, while 73% is allocated to in-school expenses. The total education expenditure also increases as children advance in their education, ranging from RMB 3,594 in preschool or primary school to RMB 20,192 in regular college or higher education. As students get older, a larger proportion of expenses are attributed to in-school costs, while a smaller proportion is allocated to extra-curricular activities and tutoring. The first 9 years of students’ education is compulsory, so earlier in-school expenses are more likely to be covered by government funding. Families of school-aged children in their compulsory education years are thus more likely to put a larger proportion of education expenditures toward extra-curricular activities and tutoring to prepare their children for the more advanced stages of education, like high school and college, where enrollment opportunities are limited.  

The burden of education expenses is highest for poorer families. Lower-income households allocate a larger proportion of their income toward their children’s education, despite spending less in absolute terms. This is partially due to the significant income disparity across sampled families: the highest-earning quartile of individuals made 13.6 times the income of those in the bottom quartile. Families in the highest quartile of earners allocate 10.6% of their income to their child’s education, while families in the bottom quartile spend a significantly larger proportion of their income on education at 56.8%.    

Percent of household income spent on education in China 

China’s families treat education as a necessity. Researchers next estimated the income elasticity of education expenditure in China to be 0.306 (i.e., for every 1% rise in income, families spend only 0.306% more on education). This low elasticity suggests that education expenditure is a priority for families in China regardless of their income level, because (like groceries) people will buy education regardless of changes in income and not comparably more is consumed when income increases.  

The level of elasticity for education in China is similar only to India’s (0.28) and is significantly lower than that of other countries. In the U.S., the income elasticity for education ranges from 1.63 to 1.88, while in Latin American countries, it ranges from 0.80 to 3.90. Such ranges indicate that in these countries, private expenditure on education is more commonly seen as a luxury good. Households in the lowest quartile of China’s earners exhibit an elasticity of 0.09, indicating that education is an absolute necessity for them. 

Education expenses a burden for China’s families. Taken together, these findings highlight the significant challenges that households in China face regarding education, particularly those with lower incomes. The researchers attribute the substantial private expenditure on education in China to an insufficient supply of high-quality educational opportunities coupled with a high demand for such education. The intense competition for better educational prospects associated with social mobility and economic opportunity has compelled Chinese families to allocate an outsized portion of their budgets to education to prepare their children for the fierce competition in the education market. The researchers point out that such expenses not only exacerbate inequality by disproportionately burdening lower-income families, but also lead to increased living costs, declining fertility rates, and low consumption, which could potentially hamper China’s future growth.     

Introduction to School and Education Systems in China

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• Private School
• College Admissions
• College Life
• Graduate School
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• Distance Learning

Education Fees

• Classes Offered

Chinese Versus Western Education Methods

Can foreigners go to primary or secondary school in china, can foreigners go to college or university in china, scholarships.

• What If I Don't Speak Chinese?
• M.S., Journalism, Columbia University
• B.A., Humanities, Florida Atlantic University

China can be a great place to learn depending on what topic you are studying, what teaching methods work best for you or your personal interests.

Whether you're thinking of going to school in China , considering enrolling your child in a Chinese school , or just curious to know more, here are answers to frequently asked questions about school programs in China, China's education methods, and enrolling in school in China.

Education is required and free for Chinese citizens age 6 to 15 though parents must pay fees for books and uniforms. Chinese children all get a primary and middle school public education. Each class averages 35 students.

After middle school, parents must pay for public high school. The majority of families in cities can afford the fees, but in rural parts of China, many students stop their education at age 15. For the wealthy, there is a growing number of private schools in China as well as dozens of international private schools.

In high school, Chinese students begin preparing for the competitive 高考 ( gaokao , National University Entrance Examinations). Somewhat similar to the SAT for American students , seniors take this test in the summer. The results determine which Chinese university test-takers will attend the following year.

Classes Offered 

Chinese students attend classes five or six days a week from the early morning (about 7 am) to early evening (4 pm or later). On Saturdays, many schools hold required morning classes in science and math.

Many students also attend 補習班 ( buxiban ), or cram school, in the evening and on weekends. Much like tutoring in the West, schools in China offer additional Chinese, English, science and math classes and one-on-one tutoring. Aside from math and science, students take Chinese, English, history, literature, music, art, and physical education.

China’s teaching methodology differs from Western education methodology. Rote memorization is emphasized and there is a heavier focus on math, science, and Chinese studies.

It is also standard practice for classes to be complemented with extensive test prep throughout middle school, junior high school, and high school for college entrance exams.

Schools in China have after-school activities, like sports and music lessons, but these activities are not as extensive as those found in international schools and schools in the West. For example, while team sports are becoming more popular, competition among schools is more like an intramural team sports system rather than a competitive system.

Schools in China have a break lasting for several days or a week during China’s national holiday at the beginning of October. During Spring Festival in mid-January or mid-February, depending on the lunar calendar, students have one to three weeks off. The next break is for China’s labor holiday, which occurs during the first few days of May.

Finally, students have a summer vacation which is much shorter than in the US. Summer vacation typically begins in mid-July though some schools start their vacations in June. The vacation lasts for approximately one month.

While most international schools will only accept Chinese students who hold a foreign passport, Chinese public schools are required by law to accept children of legal foreign residents. Admissions requirements vary but most schools require an admissions application, health records, passport, visa information, and previous school records. Some, like nurseries and kindergartens, require a birth certificate. Others require recommendation letters, assessments, on-campus interviews, entrance exams, and language requirements.

Students who cannot speak Mandarin are usually held back a few grades and usually start in first grade until their language skills improve. All classes except English are taught entirely in Chinese. Going to a local school in China has become a popular choice for expat families who live in China but can’t afford the high price of international schools.

The admissions materials at local schools are typically in Chinese and there’s little support for families and students who do not speak Chinese. Schools in Beijing that accept foreign students include Fangcaodi Primary School (芳草地小学) and The High School Affiliated to Renmin University of China Beijing Ritan High School (人大附中).

There are over 70 schools approved by China’s Ministry of Education to provide foreign instruction. Unlike local children, foreigners must pay a yearly tuition which varies but starts at about 28,000RMB.

Various programs are offered at schools in China for foreigners. An application, copies of visa and passport, school records, physical exam, photo, and proof of language proficiency are all most students need to gain acceptance to undergraduate and graduate programs at schools in China.

Chinese language proficiency is typically demonstrated by taking the Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi (HSK exam). Most schools require a score of level 6 (on a scale of 1 to 11) to enter undergraduate and graduate programs.

Additionally, a perk for foreigners is that they are exempt from the gaokao . 

Many prospective students consider applying for scholarships to study at schools in China. Foreign students pay more in tuition than local students, but the fees are generally much less than students would pay in the United States or Europe. Tuition starts at 23,000RMB annually.

Scholarships are available for foreigners . The most common scholarship is given by the Ministry of Education’s China Scholarship Council and the Chinese government. The Chinese government also awards the HSK Winner Scholarships for the top HSK test-scorers overseas. One scholarship is awarded per country where the test is administered.

What If I Don't Speak Chinese?

There are programs for those who do not speak Chinese. From Mandarin language learning to Chinese medicine to a Master of Business Administration, foreigners can study a range of subjects at schools in China, including Beijing and Shanghai , without speaking a word of Mandarin.

Programs range from a few weeks to two years or more. The application process is quite simple and consists of an application, a copy of visa, passport, school records or diploma, physical exam, and photo.

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• Education at a Glance

Education at a Glance 2022

Oecd indicators.

Education at a Glance is the authoritative source for data on the state of education around the world. It provides information on the structure, finances and performance of education systems across OECD countries and partner economies. More than 100 charts and tables in this publication – as well as much more data available online – provide key information on the output of educational institutions; the impact of learning across countries; access, participation and progression in education; the financial resources invested in education; and teachers, the learning environment and the organisation of schools.

The 2022 edition focuses on tertiary education, looking at the rise of tertiary attainment and the associated benefits for individuals and for societies. It also considers the costs of tertiary education and how spending on education is divided across levels of government and between the state and individuals. A specific chapter is dedicated to the COVID crisis and the shift from crisis management to recovery. Two new indicators on professional development for teachers and school heads and on the profile of academic staff complement this year's edition.

English Also available in: French , German

• Spotlight on Tertiary Education: Findings from Education at a Glance 2022
• https://doi.org/10.1787/3197152b-en
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• Click to download PDF - 8.38MB PDF
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Upper secondary attainment is often seen as a minimum qualification for successful labour market participation. In China, 37% of 25-64 year-olds had achieved at least an upper secondary qualification in 2020, compared to 83% on average across OECD countries. Of these, about half had achieved upper secondary education as their highest education attainment, while the remainder had completed a tertiary programme.

• Click to download PDF - 352.18KB PDF

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Author(s) OECD

03 Oct 2022

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A Guide to Education & International Schools in China

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Rigorous and fiercely competitive, the Chinese education system has worked hard to develop an international reputation for excellence, particularly in math.

Schooling in China consists of three years of kindergarten, six years of primary school, three years of junior middle school (also known as secondary school), and senior middle school (high school). After completing these years of schooling, students then have the opportunity to continue to higher education.

A limited amount of university spots puts a lot of pressure on students to ace the Gaokao , the nine-hour national higher education entrance exam, which only 40% of students pass the first time. This pressure combined with the language barrier often leads to expats choosing private rather than public schools where the teaching methods and curriculum may be more similar to what they have back home.

Getting into the best international schools in Beijing or Shanghai can be equally competitive, requiring transcripts, health records, and even recommendations on top of hefty tuition fees.  However, don’t start worrying too early –– you have options. Our extensive guide on China’s education system provides you with a better notion of what you can choose from.

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The Education System in China

China is one of the most progressive countries in terms of economic and business development, with an education system that offers children many opportunities to thrive in the future. The Chinese school system is often perceived as a breeding ground for highly educated future professionals.

However, while schools in major metropolises seem to offer great quality education, schools in rural areas aren’t as developed. They are often terribly understaffed, and the student’s opportunities and the educational environment are radically different from that in the big cities.

Another good insight into what the schools are like in China is the infamous National Exam. The pressure is so high, many students burn out, and stories of depression and suicide are not unheard of. Therefore, you should make sure that the Chinese school system is the right choice for your child.

Facts About Education in China

The Chinese education system is divided into three years of kindergarten, five or six years of primary school, and three to six years of middle school, often followed by several years of higher education. Primary school education as well as the first three years of middle school are mandatory and are mostly funded by the government. However, schools still may charge minimal fees (about 300 CNY) for each semester and add charges for food or extra-curricular activities as well.

Chinese School System Ages

* Mandatory education

School Hours

Children attend school five days a week. The school hours depend on the grade and the area, but, usually, kids start their days at 7:30 or 8:00 and finish at about 17:00. The school year in China typically starts in September and ends in late June or July.

Grading System in China

High schools, colleges, and universities in China usually have their own grading system that follows either five (A, B, C, D, and F) or four (A, B, C, and F) scale standard classifications:

The main difference between public and private education in China is that private schools tend to use bilingual teaching. Still, whether you decide to send your child to a state school or an international school, you should get ready for a very competitive admission process, an ambitious education system in general, and tuition fees that might seriously impact your cost of living.

Daycare and Kindergarten

Childcare in China is considered an essential part of a child’s overall education. Thus, pre-primary education (nurseries, kindergartens, and pre-schools)already offer various educational and training classes which are designed to give the little ones a head start and prepare them for a successful academic future. For some children, the pressure is just a little too much though.

Is Kindergarten or Daycare Mandatory in China?

As pre-primary education is not mandatory, every nursery, kindergarten, and pre-school will require you to pay tuition fees. In some cases, if the center has a very good reputation, the cost for the school can be rather high, in other cases, if the center is run by your own employer, for instance, it can be on the lower end. The difference can be quite significant, and you should keep an eye on your overall cost of living in China before sending your toddler to the best pre-school in town. Moreover, some childcare facilities might charge an additional fee for foreigners.

The Chinese are ready to invest a lot of money in their child’s education, which is why spots in popular pre-schools fill up quickly. Thus, even if you do have the money to afford a kindergarten with a very good reputation, you should make sure to enroll your child as early as possible.

What is Kindergarten, Preschool, or Daycare like in China?

The educational approach in Chinese kindergartens might be very different as well. Teachers are a lot more strict, and discipline is highly valued (more so than creative expression). Parents from Western countries may be shocked by this or even perceive these methods as cruel. Also note, that kindergarten is the time when ideological education is introduced to the curricula.

It makes sense to communicate with the school beforehand, learn all about their teaching methods and let them know what is acceptable to you and what is not. If you are worried that your child might not adjust well to the new situation, finding a kindergarten that does not follow a typical Chinese teaching style might be the best option.

Nannies (Ayis)

Many families choose to hire an  ayi  (literally “auntie”) to take care of their children. An  ayi can also help with the household chores on a part-time basis or as live-in help.

If you’re thinking about hiring an  ayi,  make sure to talk to their last employer and ask detailed questions. You should also ask to see their ID and maybe run a background check on them.

Pre-Primary Education

Pre-primary education is available for children from the age of two onwards. It serves two functions: early education and childcare. The various institutions offering pre-primary education aim to foster children’s intellectual, physical, artistic, and moral development.

At what age do kids start kindergarten?

In the big expat centers, you will have no problem finding an international or bilingual kindergarten for your child. Some of them will gladly admit children who are under two years old. They may also be more relaxed and liberal than other kindergartens.

In China, it is common for two-year-old children to already be potty-trained. If your toddler is still wearing diapers, you should talk to their pre-school teacher about it, to make sure they are aware of it.

Talk to other international parents with young children in China

Primary and Secondary Schools

When it comes to best primary and secondary schools in China, the global community tends to attribute those titles to the international schools of the country. That is mostly because the curriculum in Chinese schools differs from the typical Western standards. Strict rules, the emphasis of discipline, endless homework and tests, and constant pressure from peers and teachers – that seems to be the daily life of a Chinese student.

Primary (Elementary) Schools in China

At the age of seven or six, children begin primary school education. All in all, 60% of the allocated time of instruction is dedicated to Chinese and math, also called “The Big Two”. Additionally, children are instructed in music, art, morals and society, and nature, and also take practical work classes.

Some schools also start to teach foreign languages towards the end of primary school and add extra-curricular activities to the mix. In fact, the competitiveness of the educational system in China starts very early on so parents often sign their kids up to a variety of extra-curricular activities in order for them to have better prospects in the future.

Usually, the school year starts in September and last about 9 months. Summer vacation is in July and August while the winter holiday is around January or February. The school days usually last a whole day (from around 8:00 until 17:00) with 45-minutes-long classes, with a little more flexible schedules in more rural areas. In China’s metropolises, where lunch breaks are shorter, kids might finish school around 15:00 as well.

Primary education lasts five years in most of the country, except for the major cities like Beijing or Shanghai, where a six-year-long primary school system is more common. There, children start school at the age of six, while in the rest of the country they don’t attend schools until they’re seven.

After completing primary education, the students have to take mandatory exams that test their knowledge of Chinese and math.

Middle School in China

Between the ages of 12 and 18, children attend middle school in China. Public schools are often divided into junior middle schools (secondary school equivalent) and senior middle schools (high school equivalent), each of them three-years-long.

After completing junior middle school students can choose whether they want to attend a regular senior middle school, a vocational school, or a professional school. And while the school costs for junior middle school are usually minimal, the fees for later education increases significantly.

For many students, being able to afford higher education is not the only challenge they’re facing. Wherever they choose to continue their education, students have to take Zhongkao –– senior high school entrance examination. Then, according to their score, they are able to choose the next educational institution they wish to apply to. Usually, there’s not much competition at this stage, unless a student decides to apply for more prestigious schools of the country.

The schedules in the above-mentioned schools are similar to primary schools (8:00 to 17:00), however, the days are usually longer.

Gaokao: The Toughest High School Graduation Exam

The main goal of most senior middle schools or high schools is to prepare their students for higher education. In fact, the quality of a high school is often measured by the number of students they send off to college. This has a lot to do with the limited number of spots at China’s universities and the high number of applicants.

Thus, it is not surprising that secondary school students are under a lot of pressure. Aside from their regular workload, they also have to prepare for the  Gaokao,  the National Higher Education Entrance Examination, which is the basis for recruiting students for institutions of higher education.

This nine-hour exam taken in three days is very challenging and only 40% of students pass it the first time. The exam tests the students’ skills and knowledge in Chinese, math, a foreign language, and a few other optional subjects. According to their results, they will then be admitted to top universities, regular universities, or institutions which operate on a provincial level.

International Schools

China has a wide range of best international schools with an excellent reputation, mostly in urban centers such as Shanghai, Beijing, and other popular expat destinations in China. Expats can choose from different curricula such as British or American schooling system, or, in rare cases, German, French, or other national school programs. On top of that, many international schools in China offer the International Baccalaureate (IB). This is a good choice for expats who move their children around a lot or who value an international atmosphere.

If you move to a smaller town, not all of these options might be available to you. But no matter which type of curriculum you decide on, you need to keep the financial aspects in mind. After all, international schools in China are rather expensive, with tuition easily reaching up to 18,000 CNY per month or more. Some expats are able to negotiate their children’s schooling provisions as part of their expat packages, but not everyone is so lucky.

Prepare for Waiting Lists

Even though the tuition fees for international schools in China is high and makes up a big part of your cost of living, both international and Chinese students are flocking to these schools.

And even though the number of international schools in mainland China is on the rise, the demand is so high that the spots fill up quickly and many schools have their own set of requirements as well as long waiting lists. Hence, try to apply for a spot as early as possible and provide your child’s transcripts, health records, and, if necessary, recommendations. Keep in mind that an entrance exam and a personal interview might be part of the admission process.

Top International Schools in China’s Biggest Cities

• Beijing BISS International School
• 3e International School
• Beijing International Bilingual Academy
• Beijing City International School
• Canadian International School of Beijing
• Dulwich College Beijing
• Yew Chung International School of Beijing
• Harrow International School Beijing
• House of Knowledge Beijing
• International School of Beijing
• Saint Paul American School
• Western Academy of Beijing
• The British School of Beijing
• Hope International School
• American International School of Guangzhou
• The British School of Guangzhou
• Utahloy International School Guangzhou
• Guangzhou Huamei International School
• Clifford School
• Guangzhou Nanfang International School
• Concordia International School Shanghai
• Yew Chung International School of Shanghai
• Shanghai Community International School
• Dulwich College Shanghai
• Shanghai Livingston American School
• The British International School Shanghai, Pudong
• The British International School Shanghai, Puxi
• Shanghai American School
• Britannica International School Shanghai
• Wellington College International Shanghai
• International School of Nanshan Shenzhen
• QSI International School of Shenzhen
• Shenzhen College of International Education
• Shekou International School
• Tianjin International School
• International School of Tianjin
• Wellington College International Tianjin

Higher Education

Students in China can choose between a great variety of the best universities in the country that offer various degree programs such as bachelor’s, master’s and doctoral degrees, as well as non-degree programs. Foreign students are welcome to enter all institutions of higher education in China.

Since the mid-1980s, higher education in China is no longer funded by the state, which is why the competition for scholarships is high. Thus, international students have to prove themselves in this competitive environment, especially because more and more foreigners are enrolling at Chinese universities.

Students spend two or three years on an undergraduate level program if they attend a junior college (also known as short-cycle college). Other regular universities, however, usually offer three-year and four-year programs on the undergraduate level. Many also offer graduate programs leading to masters or doctoral degrees.

Aside from the usual undergraduate and graduate programs, scientific research is also an essential part of Chinese higher education. Various key laboratories, open research labs, and engineer research centers have been established by Chinese universities, and function as a driving force behind innovative new science and technology.

How to Get into a Chinese University

Higher education admission requirements can, of course, vary depending on the university you plan on applying to. Some universities only allow attendance if the visiting students pass a standardized Chinese language proficiency exam HSK ( Hanyu shuiping kaoshi ) or their own equivalent of it.

Moreover, every program might have its own requirements. Some of the documents you might need to submit include a completed application form, certified copies of your diploma in English or Chinese, certified copies of your official transcripts, and a photocopy of your valid passport. Often an entrance examination and an interview will be conducted as well. Please inquire with the university of your choice regarding the exact admission requirements, application deadlines, and visa requirements.

How much does it cost to study in China for an international student? (CNY)

Most universities will charge you an admission fee that might cost you from 600 to 1,400 CNY, depending on the university of your choosing. Submitting your application to more prestigious higher education schools usually means you will have to spend more. University rankings might also help you decide which higher education institution is right for you. The most prestigious universities belong to C9 League that is an equivalent to Ivy League in the US. Best universities from this prestigious league that offer many programs for international students are:

• Peking University – offers undergrad programs in science, languages and linguistics, business and management, art and design, and many more.
• Fudan University – a very international school with many programs taught in English. Excels in both humanities (philosophy, history, and literature) and science (engineering, science, and medical science).
• Zhejiang University – another C9 member with faculties in arts and humanities, social sciences, engineering, medicine, IT, science, and agriculture and environment.
• Tsinghua University – offers various programs in science, engineering, business, humanities, law, and medicine.
• University of Science and Technology of China – best known for its programs in sciences (physical, computer, life, and engineering science, mathematics, and chemistry)

Note that while these universities are considered prestigious in general, other, less popular graduate schools might have excellent programs for the field of your choice. If you know what exactly you want to study, make sure to research your specific options.

If you are interested to find out more about other universities’ tuition and application fees, requirements and admission procedures, as well as course comparisons, the Chinese government provides a coherent list of country’s universities with all the necessary information.

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Language Schools

You might have heard that Chinese is one of the most common languages in the world and speaking it is a valuable asset, especially in the business world. However, this statement is somewhat misleading, as the “Chinese language” is actually comprised of almost 300 dialects.

These dialects are so distinct from one another, calling them dialects is a bit of an understatement. The differences between them are more comparable to differences between Spanish and Italian than, for example, British and American English. Much of the pronunciation, grammar, and sentence structure is different from one dialect to another and it is common that locals from different parts of the country might have a hard time understanding each other. That is why people sometimes refer to them as “Chinese languages”.

The Chinese dialects belong to the Sino-Tibetan language family. Modern Standard Mandarin is considered the official language of mainland China. However, it shouldn’t be confused with the Mandarin dialect group which includes a range of different dialects spoken in the Northern part of the country.

Mandarin: The Official Language of the Mainland

Modern Standard Mandarin is the official language of mainland China, which is used in media, education, and formal communication. It is also known as Standard Chinese, Guoyu, Huayu, Hanyu, or Putonghua. It is based on the Chinese dialect spoken in Beijing and the vocabulary of Mandarin dialects. Moreover, it is considered one of the official languages of the United Nations.

A little over 50% of the Chinese population speaks one of the Mandarin dialects as their mother tongue and can understand the Modern Standard Mandarin. many have learned it as their second language. Outside of the Chinese mainland, Mandarin is also spoken in Taiwan and Singapore. This is one of the reasons why most foreigners decide to learn Standard Chinese as opposed to other dialects.

Cantonese: The Language of China’s South

If Mandarin is the most commonly known Chinese language, then Cantonese comes second, with around 60 million speakers in the country. Cantonese is the dialect of Yue and is mostly spoken in China’s Guangdong Province, as well as Hong Kong and Macau. Moreover, Cantonese is common in a lot of Chinese communities in Southeast Asia and Western countries. In fact, it is a language you will hear in many Chinatowns around the world.

Other Dialects and Official Languages

Although Mandarin (Putonghua) and Cantonese (Yue) are the most common Chinese dialects, there are a huge variety of other dialects and languages spoken throughout the country. Other dialect groups include including Gan, Hakka, Fujianese (Min), Shanghainese (Wu), and Xiang.

While Modern Standard Mandarin is the only official language in most parts of China, there are some exceptions. In Guangdong, for instance, Cantonese is used as an official language. In Mongolia, the official language is Mongolian, whereas Tibetan is accepted as an official language in Tibet. The autonomous region Xinjiang even recognizes two official languages: Uighur and Kyrgyz.

Written Chinese

The many different languages and dialects spoken throughout China can make communication rather difficult, even for the locals. The only saving grace is the fact that they all share the same written language. Chinese has about 56,000 characters in total, although most of them are rarely used. You need to know about 3,000 characters to be able to read a newspaper, and college graduates generally know about 5,000 to 6,000 characters.

Chinese characters, also known as “Han characters” are among the oldest continuously used writing systems in the world, dating back to the Shang Dynasty (1600 BC to 1046 BC). Unlike the Latin alphabet, Chinese writing is largely logo-syllabic: each character represents one syllable and is made up of two parts. One part indicates the meaning, the other pronunciation.

However, Taiwan and Hong Kong again present an exception. While mainland China introduced simplified characters in 1959 to increase literacy, both Hong Kong and Taiwan still stick to the “traditional” characters.

Those who cannot write or read Chinese often use Pinyin, a method of transcribing the Chinese language into the Latin alphabet. It is an officially recognized method which was introduced by the Chinese government. The system includes so-called tone markers to hint at the correct pronunciation. However, on Chinese signs and in textbooks, Pinyin is not commonly used, which is part of the reason why only few can read it.

Learning Chinese as a foreigner

If you plan to live, work, or study in China, learning at least a few words of one of the Chinese dialects is essential. As the vast majority of China’s population speaks Modern Standard Mandarin ( Putonghua ), it makes sense to focus on this dialect. It will increase your chances of understanding the locals (and being understood) in most parts of the country.

If you wish to study one of the Chinese languages, you can do so by attending one of the many Chinese language courses at a local university. The language school fees for a year-long course is around 10,000 CNY depending on the university you choose. Some of them offer shorter, more intensive courses as well.

Another option is attending a specialized Chinese language school. There you will be able to choose the intensity of your course and the number of weeks you’d like to attend the classes. The prices depend on the aforementioned criteria and can range from around 500 to 2,500 CHY or more per week.

If you choose to hire a private language teacher, make sure they actually speak  Putonghua and don’t have a strong accent. Especially if you are living in China’s south where Mandarin is only the second language, you will meet many locals who know the dialect that is considered standard Chinese but don’t speak it very well. Private teachers can cost you from 150 to 450 CNY per lesson.

Try to decide early on if you want to learn spoken Chinese only, or if you also want to understand the written form. It should not take too long to pick up enough Chinese for basic communication. Learning the written language, however, is a lot more challenging.

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The Chinese Education System: International schools in China

Home / The Chinese Education System: International schools in China

In our world of interconnected global education, we explore the Chinese education system. Plus the high demand for both British and international schools in China- both from Chinese and expat families. This blog will give you an overview on education in China, especially if you are planning to move relocate there.

The Chinese education system is highly competitive and there are numerous tests throughout the different stages. Despite this, the levels of school failure are low and the literacy rate exceeds 94%, according to World Bank data.

Chinese Ministry of Education

The Ministry of Education is in charge of controlling and managing the educational system. Education is free for all students during the compulsory stage, which ranges from six to fifteen years. From that moment on, students must pay fees. This produces a notable drop in students at higher levels. In recent years, the Chinese government has invested heavily in education. The facilities have been improved, new schools have been built and more teachers have been hired to improve the country’s educational level.

However, there is a huge demand in China from aspirational parents wanting a western-style education. These families want only the very best international opportunities for their children. Equally expatriate parents prize the value of educating their children in this dynamic relocation hotspot. While China has outnumbered the rest of the world for international schools (5,344) there is still a high demand .

British Independent Schools in China

The cost of attending fee-paying English-style schools in the region can create a significant challenge for relocating families. Especially as there is a scarcity of school places. The good news is that increasing numbers of British independent schools are opening their doors in China. Dulwich College led the way in 2004 and now has 4 schools; two in Shanghai and one each in Beijing and Suzhou. Later in 2005, Harrow opened a school in Beijing. Since then there has been a constant flow of British Independent schools opening in China. Recent additions include King’s College School and Lucton School ,which opened in 2018, and Uppingham School in 2019. Westminster School and Wycombe Abbey International School plan to open in 2020, accepting both expat and Chinese children. 

Latest estimates expect the number of students at English international schools in China to grow from 475,000 in September 2017 to 881,000 by 2022. 

Types of International School in China

Four types of international school are allowed by China’s Ministry of Education:

• Schools for Children of Foreign Workers (SCFW) , provide international education for the expatriate community and are also accessible to Chinese families who have foreign a passport. They are not allowed to enroll Chinese nationals and don’t have to offer the local curriculum.
• Sino-Foreign Cooperative Schools are joint ventures between a Chinese owner and a foreign education company or school. These are restricted to secondary and higher education. The foreign organisation typically provides the teaching and learning. Both expatriate and Chinese students can attend these schools.
• Chinese-owned private schools are able to provide bilingual learning. An increasing number of Chinese/English bilingual private schools, with a distinctly international focus, are opening. Many offer internationally recognised diplomas and mostly serve Chinese students.
• A few Chinese-owned state schools are now running an international stream as an option for high-school students.

The benefits of learning Chinese

Results of a survey of UK business leaders this year showed that 77 per cent of them believe that speaking Mandarin Chinese will give school leavers a career advantage. The UK government is investing in programmes to help students learn the language.

In fact, there are many top CEOs outside the UK that speak Chinese as a second language. For example, Mark Zuckerberg is wowing audiences across the world with his new Chinese Skills. Above all, those important business executives in China. 

For this and more reasons, some international schools are promoting the development of two languages in depth at school. At 3e International School in Beijing , the students are approximately half Chinese nationals and half expatriates. It is a dual immersion bilingual school – children spend half of the day in an English classroom with two lead English teachers and half of the day in a Chinese classroom with two lead Chinese teachers. They also attend classes in Art, Music and Sport.

The endless possibilities which open up to students who become fluent in Chinese, help them to grow into globally minded young adults who can communicate, appreciate and respect others across all cultures. It’s really exciting to consider what the future may hold for them.

 If you are relocating to China, please  contact us  for support and advice on international, British and Chinese schools. We are also experienced in helping families moving from China and Hong Kong to the UK education system.

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A new blueprint for education reform in China

Wang Yan , Lu Guo

Xi Jinping and other leaders of the Communist Party of China and the state including Li Qiang, Cai Qi and Ding Xuexiang meet with representatives attending an award ceremony honoring model teachers and outstanding groups and institutions in the education sector, in Beijing, capital of China, September 9, 2024. /Xinhua

Editor's note: Wang Yan, a special commentator for CGTN, is the director of Chinese Society of Education Developmental Strategy. Lu Guo is a master student of Academy of Regional and Global Governance, Beijing Foreign Studies University. The article reflects the author's opinions and not necessarily the views of CGTN.

Chinese President Xi Jinping has urged efforts to make solid progress toward the strategic goal of building China into a leading country in education on September 10, 2024.

This implies substantial change in the role of education in China's endeavors toward modernization. Education, together with science and technology as well as talents were highlighted as three pillars of the most fundamental and strategic support of Chinese modernization.

Not only education was mandated with ever-more important significance for modernization, but a leading country in education is defined to feature ideological and political leadership, competitiveness of talents, scientific and technological advancements, people's wellbeing, social cohesion and international influence.

Nonetheless, integrity and morality are still central to objective of education. In Chinese culture, the idea of virtue has been regarded as the foundation of personal growth for thousands of years, considered essential even before settling down or taking part in state governance.

Up until today, it still impacts the philosophy of education, yet on a new footing. The ultimate goal of education is mandated to be educating well-rounded builders and successors of socialism in ethical, intellectual, physical, aesthetic and practical terms.

With innovation-driven strategy, education will be more closely integrated with science and technology, both of which also play a crucial role in cultivating talents. The forthcoming reform will be guided by scientific development and national strategic needs, with a focus on enhancing innovation capacity.

Spearheading the domestic education development, the higher education sector will be restructured, partly through aligning the disciplines and specialties with developmental needs, focusing on foundational, emerging and interdisciplinary programs and the nurturing of top talents.

A teacher takes a selfie with her students to celebrate Teachers' Day at Huataidao Primary School in Tangshan's Fengrun district, North China's Hebei Province, September 9, 2024. /CFP

Resonating with the people-centered philosophy of governance, the education reform aims at fostering inclusion, accessibility and convenience towards a more equitable development that can benefit all the people. While universal access to nine-year compulsory education has been achieved, Xi calls for a more balanced development, narrowing the rural-urban gap in education.

Caring about students' wellbeing, the Chinese president also insists on consolidating the achievements from the "double reduction" policy, improving classroom-based teaching level as well as quality of after-school services across the board, thoroughly implementing the national strategy for digitization of education, expanding the number of beneficiaries of quality education resources, and improving public services for lifelong learning.

Notably the National Conference on Education was convened on Teacher's Day, reflecting the important role that teachers play in education. The culture of honoring teachers is embedded in such saying as "a day as a teacher, a lifetime as a parent," "teachers are engineers of the human soul and disseminators of human civilization," among others.

Building on the previous policy toward nationwide teacher professional development, we need to improve teachers' political, social and professional status and enhance teachers' guaranteed benefits, and ensure their professional dignity and legitimate rights so that they can become one of the most respectful professions that enjoy high social prestige.

Last but not least, as China continues to advance its opening-up policy, education sector will also further open its doors and learn from the outside world while sharing China's knowledge and resources with other countries, with a view to continuously improve its international influence, competitiveness and discourse power.

In particular, the education sector will expand international academic exchange and education research cooperation, actively engaging in global education governance to contribute more significantly to global education development.

The new mandate for education also emphasizes the balance between national strategy and people's needs, knowledge acquisition and holistic development, talent cultivation and social needs, as well as regulation for order and incentives for strength.

These messages come at a time when most countries in the world have come to reflect on how we understand and what to expect of education in this rapidly changing world. These not only are new ethos, but also chart a course toward a strong nation in education. With this new cycle of reform, accompanied by a set of strategies through an array of projects, initiatives and programs, it's anticipated that China will embrace a more inclusive, equitable and quality education for all.

(If you want to contribute and have specific expertise, please contact us at [email protected]. Follow  @thouse_opinions  on X, formerly Twitter, to discover the latest commentaries in the CGTN Opinion Section.)

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China’s underground tuition industry raises concerns of high costs, quality among parents

CHONGQING – Finance executive Zoe Pan used to spend 300 yuan (S$55) for each hour of her only son’s tuition classes, but she now shells out 150 yuan more, following a government ban on tutoring in 2021 that was meant to ease the cost of raising a child. 

The ban outlawed after-school tuition on school subjects, but parents told The Straits Times that it instead drove the private tutoring industry underground, as demand for the service has remained.

Higher costs due to a shortage of teachers, concerns about the quality of classes, and fear of being discovered by the authorities have also resulted from the ban, they added.

Mrs Pan, 43, who lives in Beijing, said: “Before the ban, we could rely on group classes by big tutoring brands or have access to a wider selection of tutors.

“But we can now rely only on word-of-mouth communication – mainly from other parents – to find out about tutors, or sign up for tuition classes that have been repackaged to avoid the authorities’ detection.” 

Parents also told ST that the demand for one-on-one tutoring, which exists in a legally grey area, has gone up, resulting in a further shortage of teachers.

“Many undergraduates or postgraduates in Beijing, at least, have come out to give one-on-one tuition, which is almost impossible for the authorities to detect,” said Mrs Pan.

In July 2021, Beijing announced a surprise ban on private tuition in a move to ease parents’ child-rearing concerns and to reduce students’ workload. 

The move upended the US$120 billion (S$150 billion) industry, which officials said was causing parents anxiety about making sure their child was not lagging behind their classmates.

Stellar educational qualifications are seen as a way for children to stand out in China’s ultra-competitive job market, with the slowing economy raising further concerns among parents about the prospects of their child – often the only one they would have in their lifetime.  

Soon after the ban, local governments – including those in south-eastern Fujian, central Hunan and south-western Yunnan province – released their one-year aim to “effectively reduce”, and three-year goal to produce “significant results”, though they did not provide specifics on their goals. 

In 2022, the State Council – China’s Cabinet – announced that the number of offline tuition centres had plunged 96 per cent to 4,932, down from 124,000 a year before. 

But three years on, parents said they have been forced to turn to the black market tuition industry to help their child get ahead.

The ineffectiveness of the government’s ban came under the spotlight recently, when parents mistook guidelines issued by the State Council on Aug 3 to promote domestic consumption to mean that private tuition was going to be legal again.

Among the 20 key tasks that the authorities highlighted, one was to develop training institutions as a way to boost flagging consumption, which parents took to mean that tuition centres were coming back. 

State news agency China News Service subsequently clarified in a report, headlined Are Tuition Agencies Coming Back?, on Aug 28 that the guidelines were referring to raising the standards of centres offering professional and adult education and enrichment classes, and did not include those for school subjects.

The report also noted that parents’ chatter following the release of the State Council’s guidelines underscored demand for tuition classes.

Other media reports noted that tuition classes were currently being conducted illegally in nondescript buildings, with the authorities in Guangzhou city, the capital of southern Guangdong province, releasing on Aug 23 examples of how tuition classes were still taking place illegally, as well as the punishments meted out to offenders. They warned offenders not to contravene the ban.

It is the third reminder that the Guangzhou authorities have issued in 2024. 

Offenders were made to refund parents the fees paid, and fined between 12,038 yuan and 110,820 yuan, the Guangzhou authorities said.

Sometimes, students themselves blow the whistle on illegal tutoring.

In January 2024, a junior high school student in central Hubei province went to the local police to report on the illegal tuition classes he was attending. He complained that his workload was too heavy.

Parents said that the changes right after the ban were the hardest to adjust to, given the surprise announcement, but the underground tuition industry has since stabilised.

A Beijing parent, who gave her name only as Mrs Cheng, recalled how tuition classes had to be conducted on the fly –  right after the ban kicked in – to avoid being detected by the police or neighbours.

Mrs Cheng, who is in her 40s, said that her daughter, who is in junior high now, had to attend classes at secret venues that were announced only on the day of the class.

“Sometimes classes would be held in a classmate’s home, or a commercial space,” she said. “Once, we had to travel out to the suburbs to attend a two-hour mathematics class and come back to the city where we live.

“It was so late when we got back, and my daughter still had school the next day,”  she added.

But things stabilised in 2023 after China lifted its Covid-19 restrictions, and Mrs Cheng’s daughter now attends weekly classes at a fixed venue, with cases of raids less heard of among parents. 

“The authorities seem to be paying less attention to this issue compared to when the ban was first introduced, so parents see it as a form of ‘loosening’, as long as the tuition agencies don’t make it too obvious,” Mrs Cheng told ST.

She forks out about 500 yuan an hour for her daughter to attend English and maths lessons, in a class of about 10 students. Before the ban, she was paying about 350 yuan an hour. 

Official statistics showed that the average disposable income per capita of a Beijing resident was 81,752 yuan in 2023.

The rising cost of living could be a factor, but the spike in fees is sharp because of the shortage of teachers, given that current school teachers, unlike in the past, are even more unwilling to moonlight as private tutors for fear of being caught.

Parents also have to contend with the uncertainty of teachers’ quality in the black market.

“It’s definitely more expensive now, and I have more concerns about the quality of teaching and tutors compared to before the ban,” said Mrs Cheng.

Mrs Pan, whose son is in Primary 6, said: “In the past, we could go to the big brands such as New Oriental, which we could count on for quality and reliability.”

She added that parents are often not allowed to ask for tutors’ personal information, and can only trust what they hear on the grapevine. 

Still, competition is stiff for spots in these classes. 

A parent in Shanghai, who wanted to be known only as Mrs Hu, said that she would give tutors “extra pocket money” to make sure her Primary 5 son could land a spot at a tuition centre that had repackaged classes as enrichment programmes.

Mathematics classes are now known as logical thinking programmes, and English classes are referred to as drama and hosting courses at the centre. 

“The spots for summer school programmes are so hot that I have to start reaching out to the teachers at least a month in advance to book one,” she said. 

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A 10-year-old Japanese boy stabbed near his school in China has died

The Associated Press

September 19, 2024, 7:49 AM

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BEIJING (AP) — A 10-year-old Japanese student who was stabbed near his school in southern China has died, officials in Tokyo said Thursday, asking Beijing to provide details of the stabbing and take preventive measures. A suspect is in custody.

Japanese Foreign Minister Yoko Kamikawa expressed condolences and noted that the attack occurred despite Tokyo’s requests for caution and enhanced safety as China marks a key anniversary of its war with Japan.

The student was stabbed on Wednesday about 200 meters (220 yards) from the gate of the Shenzhen Japanese School, Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs spokesperson Lin Jian said in a daily briefing. Lin said the attacker was arrested on the spot and the case was still under investigation.

In a statement released Wednesday, Shenzhen police said a 44-year-old man with the surname Zhong had been taken into custody in connection with a knifing on a minor.

No motive for the attack was immediately clear.

Kamikawa noted that Japan had asked China’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs for increased security around Japanese schools ahead of the Sept. 18 anniversary of the Mukden Incident in 1931, which China marks as the beginning of Japanese invasion of Manchuria, now northeast China.

An explosion on a Japanese railway in the northern city of Shenyang caused by Japanese soldiers but blamed on the Chinese was used as a pretext for the invasion.

“I find it extremely regrettable that the attack occurred despite that,” Kamikawa said, adding that such an attack “should never occur in any country.” Japan takes the attack “extremely seriously” and will renew its request to Beijing to do more to ensure safety of the Japanese citizens, she added.

Kamikawa said she had also advised Japanese schools in China to review their safety measures, and requested Beijing to provide details of the killing and do its utmost to prevent similar attacks on Japanese citizens.

Lin on Thursday expressed condolences and sadness over the boy’s death. “Our hearts go out to his family,” he said, adding that China will provide necessary assistance. He identified the boy as a Japanese citizen with parents from Japan and China.

Following an earlier knife attack at a bus stop for a Japanese school, the ministry has urged Japanese school operators in China to review their safety measures, said Masashi Mizobuchi, the ministry’s assistant press secretary, and officials will discuss how they can better secure the safety of Japanese students.

On June 24th, a knife attack at a school bus stop for a Japanese school in the southeastern city of Suzhou killed a Chinese national who was trying to stop the attacker and injured a Japanese mother and her child.

Lin denied any link between the two incidents, saying “similar cases may happen in any country” and denied the attacks will harm China’s relations with Japan.

“China and Japan are in communication on the case. We always welcome people from all countries, including Japan, to come to China for traveling, studying, business or living,” Lin said, pledging to take effective measures to protect their safety while in China.

“We believe individual cases will not affect the exchanges and cooperation between China and Japan,” he said.

While the news of the Japanese boy’s death was not on reported in Chinese media Thursday, people posted condolences on the social media platform Weibo and condemned the attack.

In an email sent to Japanese citizens living in China, the Japanese Embassy warned residents to be vigilant and take precautions, citing knife attacks in recent months. The Japanese Consulate in Guangzhou, which is responsible for Shenzhen, called for measures to prevent such incidents.

Earlier in June, a Chinese man stabbed four U.S. university instructors at a public park in Jilin in the northeast and a Chinese person who tried to intervene. The four instructors from Cornell College were teaching at Beihua University. Their injuries were not critical.

Yamaguchi reported from Tokyo.

Copyright © 2024 The Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, written or redistributed.

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A 10-year-old Japanese student stabbed near his school in China has died

BEIJING (AP) — Officials in Tokyo said Thursday that a 10-year-old Japanese student attending a Japanese school in southern China who was attacked the day before has died, asking Beijing to provide details of the stabbing and take preventive measures. A suspect is in custody.

Japan’s Foreign Minister Yoko Kamikawa expressed condolences and said it was “extremely regrettable” the student died despite requests for caution and enhanced safety around the time of the anniversary of the start of Japan’s invasion of China in the 1930s.

Kamikawa said she also instructed Japanese schools in China to review their safety measures, and requested China to provide details of the attack and do its utmost to prevent a recurrence of similar attacks on the Japanese.

The student was stabbed by a man about 200 meters (220 yards) from the gate of the Shenzhen Japanese School, Ministry of Foreign Affairs spokesperson Lin Jian said in a daily briefing.

“The attacker was arrested on site. The case is still being further investigated,” Lin said.

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The motive for the attack in the city of Shenzhen was not immediately clear.

In an email sent to Japanese citizens living in China, the Japanese Embassy warned residents to be vigilant and take precautions, citing knife attacks in recent months. The Japanese Consulate in Guangzhou, which is responsible for Shenzhen, called for measures to prevent such incidents.

On June 24th, a knife attack at a school bus stop for a Japanese school in the southeastern city of Suzhou killed a Chinese national who was trying to stop the attacker and injured a Japanese mother and her child.

Earlier in June, a Chinese man stabbed four U.S. university instructors at a public park in Jilin in the northeast and a Chinese person who tried to intervene. The four instructors from Cornell College were teaching at Beihua University. Their injuries were not critical.