essay on bangladesh culture

• Countries and Their Cultures
• Culture of Bangladesh

Culture Name

Bangladeshi

Alternative Names

Orientation.

Identification. "Bangladesh" is a combination of the Bengali words, Bangla and Desh, meaning the country or land where the Bangla language is spoken. The country formerly was known as East Pakistan.

Location and Geography. Bangladesh straddles the Bay of Bengal in south Asia. To the west and north it is bounded by India; to the southeast, it borders Myanmar. The topography is predominantly a low-lying floodplain. About half the total area is actively deltaic and is prone to flooding in the monsoon season from May through September. The Ganges/Padma River flows into the country from the northwest, while the Brahmaputra/ Jamuna enters from the north. The capital city, Dhaka, is near the point where those river systems meet. The land is suitable for rice cultivation.

In the north and the southeast the land is more hilly and dry, and tea is grown. The Chittagong Hill Tracts have extensive hardwood forests. The vast river delta area is home to the dominant plains culture. The hilly areas of the northeast and southeast are occupied by much smaller tribal groups, many of which have strongly resisted domination by the national government and the population pressure from Bangladeshis who move into and attempt to settle in their traditional areas. In 1998 an accord was reached between the armed tribal group Shanti Bahini and the government.

Demography. Bangladesh is the most densely populated nonisland nation in the world. With approximately 125 million inhabitants living in an area of 55,813 square miles, there are about 2,240 persons per square mile. The majority of the population (98 percent) is Bengali, with 2 percent belonging to tribal or other non-Bengali groups. Approximately 83 percent of the population is Muslim, 16 percent is Hindu, and 1 percent is Buddhist, Christian, or other. Annual population growth rate is at about 2 percent.

Infant mortality is approximately seventy-five per one thousand live births. Life expectancy for both men and women is fifty-eight years, yet the sex ratios for cohorts above sixty years of age are skewed toward males. Girls between one and four years of age are almost twice as likely as boys to die.

In the early 1980s the annual rate of population increase was above 2.5 percent, but in the late 1990s it decreased to 1.9 percent. The success of population control may be due to the demographic transition (decreasing birth and death rates), decreasing farm sizes, increasing urbanization, and national campaigns to control fertility (funded largely by other nations).

Linguistic Affiliation. The primary language is Bangla, called Bengali by most nonnatives, an Indo-European language spoken not just by Bangladeshis, but also by people who are culturally Bengali. This includes about 300 million people from Bangladesh, West Bengal, and Bihar, as well as Bengali speakers in other Indian states. The language dates from well before the birth of Christ. Bangla varies by region, and people may not understand the language of a person from another district. However, differences in dialect consist primarily of slight differences in accent or pronunciation and minor grammatical usages.

Symbolism. The most important symbol of national identity is the Bangla language. The flag is a dark green rectangle with a red circle just left of center. Green symbolizes the trees and fields of the countryside; red represents the rising sun and the blood spilled in the 1971 war for liberation. The national anthem was taken from a poem by Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore and links a love of the natural realm and land with the national identity.

Since independence in 1971, the national identity has evolved. Islamic religious identity has become an increasingly important element in the national dialogue. Many Islamic holy days are nationally celebrated, and Islam pervades public space and the media.

History and Ethnic Relations

Emergence of the Nation. The creation of the independent nation represents the triumph of ethnic and cultural politics. The region that is now Bangladesh has been part of a number of important political entities, including Indian empires, Buddhist kingdoms, the Moghul empire, the British empire and the Pakistani nation.

Until 1947 Bangladesh was known as East Bengal province and had been part of Great Britain's India holding since the 1700s. In 1947, Britain, in conjunction with India's leading indigenous political organizations, partitioned the Indian colony into India and Pakistan. The province of East Bengal was made part of Pakistan and was referred to as East Pakistan. West Pakistan was carved from the northwest provinces of the British Indian empire. This division of territory represented an attempt to create a Muslim nation on Hindu India's peripheries. However, the west and east wings of Pakistan were separated by more than 1,000 miles of India, creating cultural discontinuity between the two wings. The ethnic groups of Pakistan and the Indian Muslims who left India after partition were greatly different in language and way of life from the former East Bengalis: West Pakistan was more oriented toward the Middle East and Arab Islamic influence than was East Pakistan, which contained Hindu, Buddhist, Islamic, and British cultural influences.

From the beginning of Pakistan's creation, the Bengali population in the east was more numerous than the Pakistani population in the western wing, yet West Pakistan became the seat of government and controlled nearly all national resources. West Pakistanis generally viewed Bengalis as inferior, weak, and less Islamic. From 1947 to 1970, West Pakistan reluctantly gave in to Bengali calls for power within the government, armed forces, and civil service, but increasing social unrest in the east led to a perception among government officials that the people of Bengal were unruly and untrust worthy "Hinduized" citizens. Successive Pakistani regimes, increasingly concerned with consolidating their power over the entire country, often criticized the Hindu minority in Bengal. This was evident in Prime Minister Nazimuddin's attempt in 1952 to make Urdu, the predominant language of West Pakistan, the state language. The effect in the east was to energize opposition movements, radicalize students at Dhaka University, and give new meaning to a Bengali identity that stressed the cultural unity of the east instead of a pan-Islamic brotherhood.

Through the 1960s, the Bengali public welcomed a message that stressed the uniqueness of Bengali culture, and this formed the basis for calls for self-determination or autonomy. In the late 1960s, the Pakistani government attempted to fore-stall scheduled elections. The elections were held on 7 December 1970, and Pakistanis voted directly for members of the National Assembly.

The Awami League, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, was largely a Bengali party which called for autonomy for the east. Sheikh Mujib wanted to reconfigure Pakistan as a confederation of two equal partners. His party won one of 162 seats in the East Pakistan provincial assembly and 160 of the three hundred seats in the National Assembly. The Awami League would control national politics and have the ability to name the prime minister. President Yahya, however, postponed the convening of the National Assembly to prevent a Bengali power grab. In response, Sheikh Mujib and the Awami League led civil disobedience in East Pakistan. West Pakistan began to move more troops into the east, and on 25 March 1971, the Pakistani army carried out a systematic execution of several hundred people, arrested Mujib, and transported him to the west. On 26 March the Awami League declared East Pakistan an independent nation, and by April the Bengalis were in open conflict with the Pakistani military.

In a 10-month war of liberation, Bangladeshi units called Mukhti Bahini (freedom fighters), largely trained and armed by Indian forces, battled Pakistani troops throughout the country in guerrilla skirmishes. The Pakistanis systematically sought out political opponents and executed Hindu men on sight. Close to 10 million people fled Bangladesh for West Bengal, in India. In early December 1971, the Indian army entered Bangladesh, engaged Pakistani military forces with the help of the Mukhti Bahini, and in a ten-day period subdued the Pakistani forces. On 16 December the Pakistani military surrendered. In January 1972, Mujib was released from confinement and became the prime minister of Bangladesh.

Bangladesh was founded as a "democratic, secular, socialist state," but the new state represented the triumph of a Bangladeshi Muslim culture and language. The administration degenerated into corruption, and Mujib attempted to create a one-party state. On 15 August 1975 he was assassinated, along with much of his family, by army officers. Since that time, Bangladesh has been both less socialistic and less secular.

General Ziaur Rahman became martial law administrator in December 1976 and president in 1977. On 30 May 1981, Zia was assassinated by army officers. His rule had been violent and repressive, but he had improved national economy. After a short-lived civilian government, a bloodless coup placed Army chief of staff General Mohammed Ershad in office as martial law administrator; he later became president. Civilian opposition increased, and the Awami League, the Bangladesh National Party (BNP), and the religious fundamentalist party Jamaat-i-Islami united in a seven-year series of crippling strikes. In December 1990, Ershad was forced to resign.

A caretaker government held national elections early in 1991. The BNP, headed by Khaleda Zia, widow of former President Zia, formed a government in an alliance with the Jamaat-i-Islami. Political factionalism intensified over the next five years, and on 23 June 1996, the Awami League took control of Parliament. At its head was Sheikh Hasina Wazed, the daughter of Sheikh Mujib.

Ethnic Relations. The most significant social divide is between Muslims and Hindus. In 1947 millions of Hindus moved west into West Bengal, while millions of Muslims moved east into the newly created East Pakistan. Violence occurred as the columns of people moved past each other. Today, in most sections of the country, Hindus and Muslims live peacefully in adjacent areas and are connected by their economic roles and structures. Both groups view themselves as members of the same culture.

From 1976 to 1998 there was sustained cultural conflict over the control of the southeastern Chittagong Hill Tracts. That area is home to a number of tribal groups that resisted the movement of Bangladeshi Muslims into their territory. In 1998, a peace accord granted those groups a degree of autonomy and self-governance. These tribal groups still do not identify themselves with the national culture.

Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space

Bangladesh is still primarily a rural culture, and the gram or village is an important spatial and cultural concept even for residents of the major cities. Most people identify with a natal or ancestral village in the countryside.

Houses in villages are commonly rectangular, and are dried mud, bamboo, or red brick structures with thatch roofs. Many are built on top of earthen or wooden platforms to keep them above the flood line. Houses have little interior decoration, and wall space is reserved for storage. Furniture is minimal, often consisting only of low stools. People sleep on thin bamboo mats. Houses have verandas in the front, and much of daily life takes place under their eaves rather than indoors. A separate smaller mud or bamboo structure serves as a kitchen ( rana ghor ), but during the dry season many women construct hearths and cook in the household courtyard. Rural houses are simple and functional, but are not generally considered aesthetic showcases.

The village household is a patrilineal extended compound linked to a pond used for daily household needs, a nearby river that provides fish, trees that provide fruit (mango and jackfruit especially), and rice fields. The village and the household not only embody important natural motifs but serve as the locus of ancestral family identity. Urban dwellers try to make at least one trip per year to "their village."

Architectural styles in the cities show numerous historical influences, including Moghul and Islamic motifs with curved arches, windows, and minarets, and square British colonial wood and concrete construction. The National Parliament building (Shongshad Bhabon) in Dhaka, designed by the American architect Louis Kahn, reflects a synthesis of western modernity and curved Islamic-influenced spaces. The National Monument in Savar, a wide-based spire that becomes narrower as it rises, is the symbol of the country's liberation.

Because of the population density, space is at a premium. People of the same sex interact closely, and touching is common. On public transportation strangers often are pressed together for long periods. In public spaces, women are constrained in their movements and they rarely enter the public sphere unaccompanied. Men are much more free in their movement. The rules regarding the gender differential in the use of public space are less closely adhered to in urban areas than in rural areas.

Food and Economy

Food in Daily Life. Rice and fish are the foundation of the diet; a day without a meal with rice is nearly inconceivable. Fish, meats, poultry, and vegetables are cooked in spicy curry ( torkari ) sauces that incorporate cumin, coriander, cloves, cinnamon, garlic, and other spices. Muslims do not consume pork and Hindus do not consume beef. Increasingly common is the preparation of ruti, a whole wheat circular flatbread, in the morning, which is eaten with curries from the night before. Also important to the diet is dal, a thin soup based on ground lentils, chickpeas, or other legumes that is poured over rice. A sweet homemade yogurt commonly finishes a meal. A typical meal consists of a large bowl of rice to which is added small portions of fish and vegetable curries. Breakfast is the meal that varies the most, being rice- or bread-based. A favorite breakfast dish is panthabhat, leftover cold rice in water or milk mixed with gur (date palm sugar). Food is eaten with the right hand by mixing the curry into the rice and then gathering portions with the fingertips. In city restaurants that cater to foreigners, people may use silverware.

Three meals are consumed daily. Water is the most common beverage. Before the meal, the right hand is washed with water above the eating bowl. With the clean knuckles of the right hand the interior of the bowl is rubbed, the water is discarded, and the bowl is filled with food. After the meal, one washes the right hand again, holding it over the emptied bowl.

Snacks include fruits such as banana, mango, and jackfruit, as well as puffed rice and small fried food items. For many men, especially in urbanized regions and bazaars, no day is complete without a cup of sweet tea with milk at a small tea stall, sometimes accompanied by confections.

Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. At weddings and on important holidays, food plays an important role. At holiday or formal functions, guests are encouraged to eat to their capacity. At weddings, a common food is biryani, a rice dish with lamb or beef and a blend of spices, particularly saffron. On special occasions, the rice used is one of the finer, thinner-grained types. If biryani is not eaten, a complete multicourse meal is served: foods are brought out sequentially and added to one's rice bowl after the previous course is finished. A complete dinner may include chicken, fish, vegetable, goat, or beef curries and dal. The final bit of rice is finished with yogurt ( doi ).

On other important occasions, such as the Eid holidays, a goat or cow is slaughtered on the premises and curries are prepared from the fresh meat. Some of the meat is given to relatives and to the poor.

Basic Economy. With a per capita gross national product (GNP) of $350 and an overall GNP of $44 billion, Bangladesh is one of the poorest countries in the world. The only significant natural resource is natural gas.

Approximately 75 percent of the workforce is involved in agriculture, and 15 percent and 10 percent are employed in the service and industrial sectors, respectively. Bangladesh has been characterized as a nation of small, subsistence-based farmers, and nearly all people in rural areas are involved in the production or processing of agricultural goods. The majority of the rural population engages in agricultural production, primarily of rice, jute, pulses, wheat, and some vegetables. Virtually all agricultural output is consumed within the country, and grain must be imported. The large population places heavy demands on the food-producing sectors of the economy. The majority of the labor involved in food production is human- and animal-based. Relatively little agricultural export takes place.

In the countryside, typically about ten villages are linked in a market system that centers on a bazaar occurring at least once per week. On bazaar days, villagers bring in agricultural produce or crafts such as water pots to sell to town and city agents. Farmers then visit kiosks to purchase spices, kerosene, soap, vegetables or fish, and salt.

Land Tenure and Property. With a population density of more than two thousand per square mile, land tenure and property rights are critical aspects of survival. The average farm owner has less than three acres of land divided into a number of small plots scattered in different directions from the household. Property is sold only in cases of family emergency, since agricultural land is the primary means of survival. Ordinarily, among Muslims land is inherited equally by a household head's sons, despite Islamic laws that specify shares for daughters and wives. Among Hindu farmers inheritance practices are similar. When agricultural land is partitioned, each plot is divided among a man's sons, ensuring that each one has a geographically dispersed holding. The only sections of rural areas that are not privately owned are rivers and paths.

Commercial Activities. In rural areas Hindus perform much of the traditional craft production of items for everyday life; caste groups include weavers, potters, iron and gold smiths, and carpenters. Some of these groups have been greatly reduced in number, particularly weavers, who have been replaced by ready-made clothing produced primarily in Dhaka.

Agriculture accounts for 25 percent of GDP. The major crops are rice, jute, wheat, tea, sugarcane, and vegetables.

Major Industries. In recent years industrial growth has occurred primarily in the garment and textile industries. Jute processing and jute product fabrication remain major industries. Overall, industry accounted for about 28 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) in 1998.

Trade. Exports totaled $4.4 billion in 1996, with the United States consuming one-third of those exports. Primary export markets are for jute (used in carpet backing, burlap, and rope), fish, garments, and textiles. Imports totaled $7.1 billion and largely consisted of capital goods, grains, petroleum, and chemicals. The country relies on an annual inflow of at least $1 billion from international sources, not including the humanitarian aid that is part of the national economic system. Agriculture accounted for about 25 percent of the GDP in 1998.

Division of Labor. The division of labor is based on age and education. Young children are economically productive in rural areas, hauling water, watching animals, and helping with postharvest processing. The primary agricultural tasks, however, are performed by men. Education allows an individual to seek employment outside the agricultural sector, although the opportunities for educated young men in rural areas are extremely limited. A service or industry job often goes to the individual who can offer the highest bribe to company officials.

Social Stratification

Classes and Castes. The Muslim class system is similar to a caste structure. The ashraf is a small upperclass of old-money descendants of early Muslim officials and merchants whose roots are in Afghanistan, Turkey, and Iran. Some ashraf families trace their lineage to the Prophet Mohammed. The rest of the population is conceived of as the indigenous majority atraf. This distinction mirrors the Hindu separation between the Brahman and those in lower castes. While both Muslim and Hindu categories are recognized by educated people, the vast majority of citizens envision class in a more localized, rural context.

In rural areas, class is linked to the amount of land owned, occupation, and education. A landowner with more than five acres is at the top of the socioeconomic scale, and small subsistence farmers are in the middle. At the bottom of the scale are the landless rural households that account for about 30 percent of the rural population. Landowning status reflects socioeconomic class position in rural areas, although occupation and education also play a role. The most highly educated people hold positions requiring literacy and mathematical skills, such as in banks and government offices, and are generally accorded a higher status than are farmers. Small businessmen may earn as much as those who have jobs requiring an education but have a lower social status.

Hindu castes also play a role in the rural economy. Hindu groups are involved in the hereditary occupations that fill the economic niches that support a farming-based economy. Small numbers of higher caste groups have remained in the country, and some of those people are large landowners, businessmen, and service providers.

In urban areas the great majority of people are laborers. There is a middle class of small businessmen and midlevel office workers, and above this is an emerging entrepreneurial group and upper-level service workers.

Symbols of Social Stratification. One of the most obvious symbols of class status is dress. The traditional garment for men is the lungi, a cloth tube skirt that hangs to the ankles; for women, the sari is the norm. The lungi is worn by most men, except those who consider themselves to have high socioeconomic status, among whom pants and shirt are worn. Also indicative of high standing are loose white cotton pajama pants and a long white shirt. White dress among men symbolizes an occupation that does not require physical labor. A man with high standing will not be seen physically carrying anything; that task is left to an assistant or laborer. Saris also serve as class markers, with elaborate and finely worked cloth symbolizing high status. Poverty is marked by the cheap, rough green or indigo cotton cloth saris of poor women. Gold jewelry indicates a high social standing among women.

A concrete-faced house and a ceramic tile roof provide evidence of wealth. An automobile is well beyond the means of most people, and a motorcycle is a sign of status. Color televisions, telephones, and electricity are other symbols associated with wealth.

Political Life

Government. The People's Republic of Bangladesh is a parliamentary democracy that includes a president, a prime minister, and a unicameral parliament ( Jayitya Shongshod ). Three hundred members of parliament are elected to the 330-seat legislature in local elections held every five years. Thirty seats are reserved for women members of parliament. The prime minister, who is appointed by the president, must have the support of a majority of parliament members. The president is elected by the parliament every five years to that largely ceremonial post. The country is divided into four divisions, twenty districts, subdistricts, union parishads, and villages. In local politics, the most important political level is the union in rural areas; in urban regions, it is the municipality ( pourashava ). Members are elected locally, and campaigning is extremely competitive.

Leadership and Political Officials. There are more than 50 political parties. Party adherence extends from the national level down to the village, where factions with links to the national parties vie for local control and help solve local disputes. Leaders at the local level are socioeconomically well-off individuals who gain respect within the party structure, are charismatic, and have strong kinship ties. Local leaders draw and maintain supporters, particularly at election time, by offering tangible, relatively small rewards.

The dominant political parties are the Awami League (AL), the BNP, the Jatiya Party (JP), and the Jamaat-i-Islami (JI). The Awami League is a secular-oriented, formerly socialist-leaning party. It is not stringently anti-India, is fairly liberal with regard to ethnic and religious groups, and supports a free-market economy. The BNP, headed by former Prime Minister Khaleda Zia, is less secular, more explicitly Islamic in orientation, and more anti-India. The JP is close to the BNP in overall orientation, but pushed through a bill in Parliament that made Islam the state religion in 1988. The JI emphasizes Islam, Koranic law, and connections to the Arab Middle East.

Social Problems and Control. Legal procedures are based on the English common-law system, and supreme court justices and lower-level judges are appointed by the president. District courts at the district capitals are the closest formal venues for legal proceedings arising from local disputes. There are police forces only in the cities and towns. When there is a severe conflict or crime in rural areas, it may take days for the police to arrive.

In rural areas, a great deal of social control takes place informally. When a criminal is caught, justice may be apportioned locally. In the case of minor theft, a thief may be beaten by a crowd. In serious disputes between families, heads of the involved kinship groups or local political leaders negotiate and the offending party is required to make restitution in money and/or land. Police may be paid to ensure that they do not investigate. Nonviolent disputes over property or rights may be decided through village councils ( panchayat ) headed by the most respected heads of the strongest kinship groups. When mediation or negotiation fails, the police may be called in and formal legal proceedings may begin. People do not conceive of the informal procedures as taking the law into their own hands.

Military Activity. The military has played an active role in the development of the political structure and climate of the country since its inception and has been a source of structure during crises. It has been involved in two coups since 1971. The only real conflict the army has encountered was sporadic fighting with the Shakti Bahini in the Chittagong Hill Tracts from the mid-1970s until 1998, after which an accord between the government and those tribal groups was produced.

Social Welfare and Change Programs

Bangladesh is awash in social change programs sponsored by international organizations such as the United Nations, the World Bank, Care, USAID, and other nations' development agencies. Those organizations support project areas such as population control, agricultural and economic development, urban poverty, environmental conservation, and women's economic development.

Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations

The Grameen Bank created the popular microcredit practice, which has given the poor, especially poor women, access to credit. This model is based on creating small circles of people who know and can influence each other to pay back loans. When one member has repaid a loan, another member of the group becomes eligible to receive credit. Other nongovernmental organizations include the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee, Probashi, and Aat Din.

Gender Roles and Statuses

Division of Labor by Gender. Women traditionally are in charge of household affairs and are not encouraged to move outside the immediate neighborhood unaccompanied. Thus, most women's economic and social lives revolve around the home, children, and family. Islamic practice reserves prayer inside the mosque for males only; women practice religion within the home. Bangladesh has had two female prime ministers since 1991, both elected with widespread popular support, but women are not generally publicly active in politics.

Men are expected to be the heads of their households and to work outside the home. Men often do the majority of the shopping, since that requires interaction in crowded markets. Men spend a lot of time socializing with other men outside the home.

The Relative Status of Women and Men. The society is patriarchal in nearly every area of life, although some women have achieved significant positions of political power at the national level. For ordinary women, movement is confined, education is stressed less than it is for men, and authority is reserved for a woman's father, older brother, and husband.

Marriage, Family, and Kinship

Marriage. Marriage is almost always an arranged affair and takes place when the parents, particularly the father, decide that a child should be married. Men marry typically around age twenty-five or older, and women marry between ages fifteen and twenty; thus the husband is usually at least ten years older than the wife. Muslims allow polygynous marriage, but its occurrence is rare and is dependent on a man's ability to support multiple households.

Divorce is a source of social stigma. A Muslim man may initiate a divorce by stating "I divorce you" three times, but very strong family pressure ordinarily ensures that divorces do not occur. A divorce can be most difficult for the woman, who must return to her parent's household.

Domestic Unit. The most common unit is the patrilineally-related extended family living in a household called a barhi. A barhi is composed of a husband and wife, their unmarried children, and their adult sons with their wives and children. Grandparents also may be present, as well as patrilineally-related brothers, cousins, nieces, and nephews. The oldest man is the authority figure, although the oldest woman may exert considerable authority within the household. A barhi in rural areas is composed of three or four houses which face each other to form a square courtyard in which common tasks are done. Food supplies often are shared, and young couples must contribute their earnings to the household head. Cooking, however, often is done within the constituent nuclear family units.

Inheritance. Islamic inheritance rules specify that a daughter should receive one-half the share of a son. However, this practice is rarely followed, and upon a household head's death, property is divided equally among his sons. Daughters may receive produce and gifts from their brothers when they visit as "compensation" for their lack of an inheritance. A widow may receive a share of her husband's property, but this is rare. Sons, however, are custom-bound to care for their mothers, who retain significant power over the rest of the household.

Kin Groups. The patrilineal descent principle is important, and the lineage is very often localized within a geographic neighborhood in which it constitutes a majority. Lineage members can be called on in times of financial crisis, particularly when support is needed to settle local disputes. Lineages do not meet regularly or control group resources.

Socialization

Infant Care. Most women give birth in their natal households, to which they return when childbirth is near. A husband is sent a message when the child is born. Five or seven days after the birth the husband and his close male relatives visit the newborn, and a feast and ritual haircutting take place. The newborn is given an amulet that is tied around the waist, its eye sockets may be blackened with soot or makeup, and a small soot mark is applied to the infant's forehead and the sole of the foot for protection against spirits. Newborns and infants are seldom left unattended. Most infants are in constant contact with their mothers, other women, or the daughters in the household. Since almost all women breastfeed, infant and mother sleep within close reach. Infants' needs are attended to constantly; a crying baby is given attention immediately.

Child Rearing and Education. Children are raised within the extended family and learn early that individual desires are secondary to the needs of the family group. Following orders is expected on the basis of age; an adult or older child's commands must be obeyed as a sign of respect. Child care falls primarily to household women and their daughters. Boys have more latitude for movement outside the household.

Between ages five and ten, boys undergo a circumcision ( musulmani ), usually during the cool months. There is no comparable ritual for girls, and the menarche is not publicly marked.

Most children begin school at age five or six, and attendance tends to drop off as children become more productive within the household (female) and agricultural economy (male). About 75 percent of children attend primary school. The higher a family's socioeconomic status, the more likely it is for both boys and girls to finish their primary educations. Relatively few families can afford to send their children to college (about 17 percent), and even fewer children attend a university. Those who enter a university usually come from relatively well-off families. While school attendance drops off overall as the grades increase, females stop attending school earlier than do males.

Higher Education. Great value is placed on higher education, and those who have university degrees and professional qualifications are accorded high status. In rural areas the opportunities for individuals with such experience are limited; thus, most educated people are concentrated in urban areas.

While the universities are the scenes of political struggle, they are also centers of intellectual and cultural creativity. Students may obtain excellent training in all fields, including the arts, law, medicine, and engineering. Universities are also somewhat like islands where some of the ordinary rules of social interaction are relaxed. For example, male– female interaction on campuses is more open and less monitored than in society as a whole. Dance and theater presentations are common, as are academic debates.

Personal interaction is initiated with the greeting Assalam Waleykum ("peace be with you"), to which the required response is, Waleykum Assalam ("and with you"). Among Hindus, the correct greeting is Nomoshkar, as the hands are brought together under the chin. Men may shake hands if they are of equal status but do not grasp hands firmly. Respect is expressed after a handshake by placing the right hand over the heart. Men and women do not shake hands with each other. In same-sex conversation, touching is common and individuals may stand or sit very close. The closer individuals are in terms of status, the closer their spatial interaction is. Leave-taking is sealed with the phrase Khoda Hafez.

Differences in age and status are marked through language conventions. Individuals with higher status are not addressed by personal name; instead, a title or kinship term is used.

Visitors are always asked to sit, and if no chairs are available, a low stool or a bamboo mat is provided. It is considered improper for a visitor to sit on the floor or ground. It is incumbent on the host to offer guests something to eat.

In crowded public places that provide services, such as train stations, the post office, or bazaars, queuing is not practiced and receiving service is dependent on pushing and maintaining one's place within the throng. Open staring is not considered impolite.

Religious Beliefs. The symbols and sounds of Islam, such as the call to prayer, punctuate daily life. Bangladeshis conceptualize themselves and others fundamentally through their religious heritage. For example, the nationality of foreigners is considered secondary to their religious identity.

Islam is a part of everyday life in all parts of the country, and nearly every village has at least a small mosque and an imam (cleric). Prayer is supposed to be performed five times daily, but only the committed uphold that standard. Friday afternoon prayer is often the only time that mosques become crowded.

Throughout the country there is a belief in spirits that inhabit natural spaces such as trees, hollows, and riverbanks. These beliefs are derided by Islamic religious authorities.

Hinduism encompasses an array of deities, including Krishna, Ram, Durga, Kali, and Ganesh. Bangladeshi Hindus pay particular attention to the female goddess Durga, and rituals devoted to her are among the most widely celebrated.

Religious Practitioners. The imam is associated with a mosque and is an important person in both rural and urban society, leading a group of followers. The imam's power is based on his knowledge of the Koran and memorization of phrases in Arabic. Relatively few imams understand Arabic in the spoken or written form. An imam's power is based on his ability to persuade groups of men to act in conjunction with Islamic rules. In many villages the imam is believed to have access to the supernatural, with the ability to write charms that protect individuals from evil spirits, imbue liquids with holy healing properties, or ward off or reverse of bad luck.

Brahman priests perform rituals for the Hindu community during the major festivals when offerings are made but also in daily acts of worship. They are respected, but Hinduism does not have the codified hierarchical structure of Islam. Thus, a Brahman priest may not have a position of leadership outside his religious duties.

Rituals and Holy Places. The primary Islamic holidays in Bangladesh include: Eid-ul-Azha (the tenth day of the Muslim month Zilhaj ), in which a goat or cow is sacrificed in honor of Allah; Shob-i-Barat (the fourteenth or fifteenth day of Shaban ), when Allah records an individual's future for the rest of the year; Ramadan (the month Ramzan ), a month-long period of fasting between dawn and dusk; Eid-ul-Fitr (the first day of the month Shawal, following the end of Ramzan ), characterized by alms giving to the poor; and Shob-i-Meraz (the twenty-seventh day of Rajab ), which commemorates the night when Mohammed ascended to heaven. Islamic holidays are publicly celebrated in afternoon prayers at mosques and outdoor open areas, where many men assemble and move through their prayers in unison.

Among the most important Hindu celebrations are Saraswati Puja (February), dedicated to the deity Saraswati, who takes the form of a swan. She is the patron of learning, and propitiating her is important for students. Durga Puja (October) pays homage to the female warrior goddess Durga, who has ten arms, carries a sword, and rides a lion. After a nine-day festival, images of Durga and her associates are placed in a procession and set into a river. Kali Puja (November) is also called the Festival of Lights and honors Kali, a female deity who has the power to give and take away life. Candles are lit in and around homes.

Other Hindu and Islamic rituals are celebrated in villages and neighborhoods and are dependent on important family or local traditions. Celebrations take place at many local shrines and temples.

Death and the Afterlife. Muslims believe that after death the soul is judged and moves to heaven or hell. Funerals require that the body be washed, the nostrils and ears be plugged with cotton or cloth, and the body be wrapped in a white shroud. The body is buried or entombed in a brick or concrete structure. In Hinduism, reincarnation is expected and one's actions throughout life determine one's future lives. As the family mourns and close relatives shave their heads, the body is transported to the funeral ghat (bank along a river), where prayers are recited. The body is to be placed on a pyre and cremated, and the ashes are thrown into the river.

Medicine and Health Care

The pluralistic health care system includes healers such as physicians, nonprofessionally trained doctors, Aryuvedic practitioners, homeopaths, fakirs, and naturopaths. In rural areas, for non-life-threatening acute conditions, the type of healer consulted depends largely on local reputation. In many places, the patient consults a homeopath or a nonprofessional doctor who is familiar with local remedies as well as modern medical practices. Professional physicians are consulted by the educated and by those who have not received relief from other sources. Commonly, people pursue alternative treatments simultaneously, visiting a fakir for an amulet, an imam for blessed oil, and a physician for medicine.

A nationally run system of public hospitals provides free service. However, prescriptions and some medical supplies are the responsibility of patients and their families.

Aryuvedic beliefs based on humoral theories are common among both Hindus and Muslims. These beliefs are commonly expressed through the categorization of the inherent hot or cold properties of foods. An imbalance in hot or cold food intake is believed to lead to sickness. Health is restored when this imbalance is counteracted through dietary means.

Secular Celebrations

Ekushee (21 February), also called Shaheed Dibash, is the National Day of Martyrs commemorating those who died defending the Bangla language in 1952. Political speeches are held, and a memorial service takes place at the Shaheed Minar (Martyr's Monument) in Dhaka. Shadheenata Dibash, or Independence Day (26 March), marks the day when Bangladesh declared itself separate from Pakistan. The event is marked with military parades and political speeches. Poila Boishakh, the Bengali New Year, is celebrated on the first day of the month of Boishakh (generally in April). Poetry readings and musical events take place. May Day (1 May) celebrates labor and workers with speeches and cultural events. Bijoy Dibosh, or Victory Day (16 December), commemorates the day in 1971 when Pakistani forces surrendered to a joint Bangladeshi–Indian force. Cultural and political events are held.

The Arts and Humanities

Support for the Arts. Artists are largely self-supporting. The Bangla Academy in Dhaka provides support for some artists, particularly writers and poets. Many artists sell aesthetic works that have utilitarian functions.

Literature. Most people, regardless of their degree of literacy, can recite more than one poem with dramatic inflection. Best known are the works of the two poet–heroes of the region: Rabindranath Tagore and Kazi Nurul Islam. Tagore was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913. Although from West Bengal, he is respected as a Bengali who championed the preservation of Bangla language and culture. His poem "Golden Bengal" was adopted as the national anthem.

The most famous contemporary writer is Taslima Nasreen, whose novellas and essays question the Islamic justification for the customary treatment of women. Conservative religious authorities have tried to have her arrested and have called for her death for blasphemy. She lives in exile.

Graphic Arts. Most graphic arts fall within the domain of traditional production by Hindu caste groups. The most pervasive art form throughout the country is pottery, including water jugs and bowls of red clay, often with a red slip and incising. Some Hindu sculptors produce brightly painted works depicting Durga and other deities. Drawing and painting are most visible on the backs of rickshaws and the wooden sides of trucks.

Performance Arts. Bengali music encompasses a number of traditions and mirrors some of the country's poetry. The most common instruments are the harmonium, the tabla, and the sitar. Generally, classical musicians are adept at the rhythms and melodic properties associated with Hindu and Urdu devotional music. More popular today are the secular male–female duets that accompany Bengali and Hindi films. These songs are rooted in the classical tradition but have a freer contemporary melodic structure. Traditional dance is characterized by a rural thematic element with particular hand, foot, and head movements. Dance is virtually a female-only enterprise. Plays are traditionally an important part of village life, and traveling shows stop throughout the countryside. Television dramas portray family relationships, love, and economic advantage and disadvantage. Plays in the cities, particularly in Dhaka, are attended by the educated young.

The State of the Physical and Social Sciences

Dhaka University offers courses in most academic disciplines. Sciences such as physics and chemistry have very good programs, although there is a lack of up-to-date laboratories and equipment. In the social sciences, the field of economics is particularly strong, along with anthropology, sociology, and political science. Many top students in the physical and social sciences study abroad, especially in the United States and Europe. The top engineering program is at the Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology. Electrical, ocean/naval, civil, and mechanical engineering have very good programs. Education in computer engineering is improving rapidly.

Bibliography

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Ali, A. M. M. Shawkat. Politics and Land System in Bangladesh, 1986.

Alim, A. Bangladesh Rice, 1982.

Baxter, Craig. New Nation in an Old Setting, 1984.

— Bangladesh: From a Nation to a State, 1997.

Bessaignet, Pierre. Tribesmen of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, 1958.

Blanchet, Therese. Women, Pollution, and Marginality, 1984.

Bornstein, David. The Price of a Dream: The Story of the Grameen Bank and the Idea That is Helping the Poor to Change Their Lives, 1997.

Chowdhury, Subrata Roy. The Genesis of Bangladesh: A Study in International Legal Norms and Permissive Conscience, 1972.

Glassie, Henry. Art and Life in Bangladesh, 1997.

Hartman, James, and Betsy Boyce. Needless Hunger, 1979.

Huq, Syed Mujibul, translator. Selected Poems of Kazi Nurul Islam, 1983.

Islam, Aminul A. K. M. Bangladesh Village: Political Conflict and Cohesion, 1982.

Majumdar, R. C. History of Bengal, 1943.

Nicholas, Marta, and Philip Oldenburg. Bangladesh: Birth of a Nation, 1972.

Novak, James J. Bangladesh: Reflections on the Water, 1993.

O'Donnell, Charles Peter. Bangladesh: Biography of a Muslim Nation, 1984.

Ray, Rajat Kanta. Mind, Body and Society: Life and Mentality in Colonial Bengal, 1995.

Sisson, Richard, and Leo Rose. War and Secession: Pakistan, India, and the Creation of Bangladesh, 1991.

United States Department of State. Bangladesh Background Notes, 1998.

Wennergren, E. Boyd, Charles H. Antholt, and Morris D. Whitaker. Agricultural Development in Bangladesh, 1984.

Wood, Geoffrey. Whose Ideas, Whose Interests?, 1991.

Virtual Bangladesh. http://www.virtualbangladesh.com

—M ICHAEL S. H ARRIS , WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF E LIZABETH L LOYD

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Essay on Bangladesh

Students are often asked to write an essay on Bangladesh in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

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100 Words Essay on Bangladesh

Introduction to bangladesh.

Bangladesh is a country in South Asia. It is next to India and Myanmar. The capital city is Dhaka. The official language is Bengali. It is known for its rich culture and history.

Geography of Bangladesh

Bangladesh is mostly flat with rivers and hills. It has a tropical monsoon climate. The country has many rivers including the Padma and the Meghna. These rivers are very important for farming and transportation.

Population of Bangladesh

Bangladesh is one of the most populated countries in the world. People here are known as Bangladeshis. Most people speak Bengali and follow Islam. There are also many different ethnic groups.

Culture of Bangladesh

Bangladesh has a rich and diverse culture. It includes literature, music, dance, and art. The country also celebrates many festivals like Eid, Pohela Boishakh, and Durga Puja.

Economy of Bangladesh

Bangladesh is a unique country with a rich culture and history. It has a growing economy and a diverse population. Despite facing challenges, it continues to develop and prosper.

250 Words Essay on Bangladesh

Introduction.

Bangladesh is a country in South Asia. It is surrounded by India, Myanmar, and the Bay of Bengal. Bangladesh is famous for its rich culture, history, and natural beauty.

Bangladesh is a land of rivers. It has more than 700 rivers, including the Padma, Meghna, and Jamuna. These rivers play a big role in the country’s economy and culture. Bangladesh also has the largest mangrove forest in the world, the Sundarbans.

The culture of Bangladesh is very rich and diverse. The people of Bangladesh celebrate various festivals such as Pohela Boishakh (New Year), Eid, and Durga Puja. The traditional music and dance forms, like Baul and Jatra, are very popular.

The economy of Bangladesh has been growing rapidly. The country is one of the world’s largest producers of textiles and garments. It also has a strong agriculture sector, with rice and jute being the main crops.

500 Words Essay on Bangladesh

Bangladesh is a small and beautiful country in South Asia. It is bordered by India on all sides except for a small part in the southeast which borders Myanmar. Bangladesh is known for its rich culture, history, and natural beauty.

Bangladesh is mainly a flat land with fertile soil. It has the largest delta in the world, formed by the mighty rivers Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna. These rivers make the soil very fertile, which is great for farming. The country is also known for its beautiful green landscapes and many water bodies. The Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world, is located in Bangladesh and is home to the Royal Bengal Tiger.

Bangladesh has a rich and diverse culture. The people of Bangladesh are known for their love of music, dance, and art. The traditional dance forms and music like Baul and Marfoti are very popular. The country also has a rich tradition of folk literature. The main festival of Bangladesh is Pohela Boishakh, the Bengali New Year. The people of Bangladesh celebrate this day with great joy and enthusiasm.

The economy of Bangladesh is growing rapidly. The main occupation is farming, with rice being the main crop. The country is also one of the largest producers of jute, a plant used for making rope and sacks. In recent years, the garment industry has grown a lot and has become a major part of the economy. Bangladesh is now one of the world’s largest exporters of garments.

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• The Culture and Customs Of Bangladesh

The people of Bangladesh ’s way of life make up the culture of Bangladesh. The country has a diverse culture that has evolved over time with influences from diverse social groups. Bangladesh’s primary religions, Islam, Buddhism, and Hinduism, have played a critical role in influencing the country’s culture. Development of the Bengali culture proliferated in the 19th century and part of the 20th century during the Bengal Renaissance, with renowned Bengali writers, scientists, filmmakers, musicians, artists, and researchers playing a critical role. This culture manifests in the nation’s dance, music, literature, architecture, and even clothing.

Music And Performing Arts

In Bangladesh, music and dance styles generally fall under the three categories of folk, classical, and modern. The country’s traditional folk songs are rich with themes such as love. Lyrics come from the nation’s culture, mysticism, and spirituality. Folk songs include Baul , Murshidi, and Bhatiali, and some of the lyricists include Hason Raja and Abbas Uddin among others. The dancing styles in Bangladesh are distinct although some dance forms such as Kathak and Bharatnatyam show influences from other parts of the Indian subcontinent, as Bangladesh was a part of Pakistan in the past. In the urban centers, rock bands influenced by western culture have risen in popularity recently. Musical instruments used in Bangladesh include modern ones from western origins such as guitars and traditional ones including bamboo flutes and drums named bashi and tabla or dhol.

The most widespread religion in Bangladesh is Islam , which constitutes 87% of the citizens of the nation. Buddhism and Hinduism are also popular religions. A tiny part of Bangladesh’s population includes Christians and Sikhs, with others being atheists. The four religious national holidays are Christmas, Eid ul-Fitr, Buddha Purnima, and Durga Puja.

Festivals And Celebrations

The culture of Bangladesh incorporates festivals and celebrations. These events include Eid ul-Adha, Chand Raat, and Eid ul-Fitr from Islam as well as Janmashtami and Durga Puja from Hinduism. Other festivals in Bangladesh include the Christian Christmas and Buddha Purnima from the Buddhist religion. The people of Bangladesh also celebrate national holidays like Independence Day and Language Movement Day. Bengali marriage comes in the form of traditional weddings which follows Muslim procession and has matchmakers called Ghotoks involved in the arrangement. The other religions in Bangladesh have different wedding methods although they sometimes follow Bengali procession.

Clothing And Cuisine

The dress preferences in Bangladesh are unique. Bangladeshi men’s casual wear in rural areas is the lungi with formal clothing being suits or shirts and trousers. On cultural and religious occasions, men have traditional wear called Panjabi . In women, the traditional and main dress is the Shari , with young females also wearing salwar kameez . Bangladesh’s cuisine is renowned for having a distinctive culinary tradition. The nation’s staple food is rice served with various food items such as vegetables, fish, meat, eggs, curries, and thick lentil soups. The country has many sweet preparations including Bangladesh’s sweetmeats which are milk based. These delicacies include shondesh , rasmalai, Chom-Chom, rasgulla, and Kala jam . The primary source of protein in Bangladesh is fish, with over 40 types of freshwater fish including Katla, catfish called magur, and shutki machh. Eating beef is not a taboo in the country, with beef curry being essential in Bengal cuisine.

Sport is an integral part of the culture of Bangladesh, and a very popular source of entertainment. Bangladesh’s national sport is Kabaddi. The most popular game in the country is cricket with football coming in second. The national cricket team of Bangladesh is eligible to play Test cricket, a status that was established in 2000. Bangladesh participates in international competitions such as the Olympic, Asian, and Commonwealth Games. Traditional sports in the country include Kho Kho and Lathi Khela.

Architecture

Rooted in Bangladesh’s culture, history, and religion are the nation’s architectural attributes and designs. Over centuries, religious, exotic and social communities have influenced the architecture of Bangladesh. Some of the structural models in the country include Pala Buddhist, Indo-Saracenic Revival, Islamic and Mughal architectures. The nation boasts of architectural relics and monuments which are thousands of years old. Some of the buildings showing different designs in Bangladesh include Kantajew Temple in Dinajpur, the parliament house named Jatiyo Sangsad Bhaban, Ahsan Manzil in Dhaka, and Lalbagh Fort also in Dhaka.

Media And Cinema

The press in Bangladesh is diverse and privately owned. The country has more than 200 published newspapers and over 20 television networks owned privately. The state owns Bangladesh Television and Bangladesh Betar, which is a radio service. Voice of America and BBC Bangla from the British Broadcasting Corporation are very popular in Bangladesh. In 1898, the Crown Theatre located in Dacca began screening films giving birth to Bangladesh’s cinema culture. Production of films started in 1931 with the Last Kiss from the East Bengal Cinematograph Society. During the 1960s, production rose to about 30 films annually with close to 100 films per year by the 2000s. During the 2002 Cannes Film Festival, the International Federation of Film Critics honored the late Tareque Masud, a distinguished Bangladeshi director for his film The Clay Bird.

Bengal Renaissance

The Bengali Renaissance was a movement during the British rule in the 19th century when Bangladesh witnessed an awakening in its culture, artistry, and intellect. Bengal renaissance resembles the 16th-century European Renaissance with the main difference being the colonialism challenge in Bangladesh. Existing orthodoxies became the primary focus of the movement, which questioned religion, respect for women and marriage systems. The Renaissance brought about changes to religion and spirituality, arts, literature, and advancement in science and technology.

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Bangladesh , country of South Asia , located in the delta of the Padma ( Ganges [Ganga]) and Jamuna ( Brahmaputra ) rivers in the northeastern part of the Indian subcontinent .

The riverine country of Bangladesh (“Land of the Bengals”) is one of the most densely populated countries in the world, and its people are predominantly Muslim. As the eastern portion of the historical region of Bengal , the area once formed, along with what is now the Indian state of West Bengal , the province of Bengal in British India . With the partition of India in 1947, it became the Pakistani province of East Bengal (later renamed East Pakistan ), one of five provinces of Pakistan, separated from the other four by 1,100 miles (1,800 km) of Indian territory. In 1971 it became the independent country of Bangladesh, with its capital at Dhaka .

Bangladesh is bordered by the Indian states of West Bengal to the west and north, Assam to the north, Meghalaya to the north and northeast, and Tripura and Mizoram to the east. To the southeast, it shares a boundary with Myanmar (Burma). The southern part of Bangladesh opens into the Bay of Bengal .

Stretching northward from the Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh constitutes roughly the eastern two-thirds of the deltaic plain of the Padma ( Ganges [Ganga]) and Jamuna ( Brahmaputra ) rivers. Except for small higher areas of jungle-covered old alluvium (rising to about 100 feet [30 metres]) in the northwest and north-centre—in the Barind and the Madhupur Tract , respectively—the plain is a flat surface of recent alluvium, having a gentle slope and an elevation of generally less than 30 feet (9 metres) above sea level . In the northeast and southeast—in the Sylhet and Chittagong Hills areas, respectively—the alluvial plains give place to ridges, running mainly north-south, that form part of the mountains that separate Bangladesh from Myanmar and India. In its southern region, Bangladesh is fringed by the Sundarbans , a huge expanse of marshy deltaic forest.

The Barind is a somewhat elevated triangular wedge of land that lies between the floodplains of the upper Padma and Jamuna rivers in northwestern Bangladesh. A depression called the Bhar Basin extends southeast from the Barind for about 100 miles (160 km) to the confluence of the Padma and Jamuna. This area is inundated during the summer monsoon season, in some places to a depth exceeding 10 feet (3 metres). The drainage of the western part of the basin is centred in the vast marshy area called the Chalan wetlands, also known as Chalan Lake. The floodplains of the Jamuna, which lie north of the Bhar Basin and east of the Barind, stretch from the border with Assam in the north to the confluence of the Padma and Jamuna in the south. The area is dominated by the Jamuna, which frequently overflows its banks in devastating floods. South of the Bhar Basin is the floodplain of the lower Padma.

In north-central Bangladesh, east of the Jamuna floodplains, is the Madhupur Tract. It consists of an elevated plateau on which hillocks ranging in height from 30 to 60 feet (9 to 18 metres) give contour to cultivated valleys. The Madhupur Tract contains sal trees, whose hardwood is comparable in value and utility to teak. East of the Madhupur Tract, in northeastern Bangladesh, is a region called the Northeastern Lowland. It encompasses the southern and southwestern parts of the Sylhet area (including the valley plain of the Surma River ) and the northern part of the Mymensingh area and has a large number of lakes. The Sylhet Hills in the far northeast of the region consist of a number of hillocks and hills ranging in elevation from about 100 feet (30 metres) to more than 1,100 feet (330 metres).

In east-central Bangladesh the Brahmaputra River in its old course (the Old Brahmaputra River) built up the flood basin of the Meghna River , the region that includes the low and fertile Meghna-Sitalakhya Doab (the land area between those rivers). This area is enriched by the Titas distributary, and land areas are formed and changed by the deposition of silt and sand in the riverbeds of the Meghna River, especially between Bhairab Bazar and Daudkandi. Dhaka is located in this region.

In southern Bangladesh the Central Delta Basins include the extensive lakes in the central part of the Bengal Delta, to the south of the upper Padma. The basin’s total area is about 1,200 square miles (3,100 square km). The belt of land in southwestern Bangladesh bordering the Bay of Bengal constitutes the Immature Delta. A lowland of some 3,000 square miles (7,800 square km), the belt contains, in addition to the vast mangrove forest known as the Sundarbans, the reclaimed and cultivated lands to the north of it. The area nearest the Bay of Bengal is crisscrossed by a network of streams that flow around roughly oblong islands. The Active Delta, located north of the Central Delta Basins and east of the Immature Delta, includes the Dhaleswari-Padma Doab and the estuarine islands of varying sizes that are found from the Pusur River in the southwest to the island of Sandwip near Chittagong in the southeast.

Lying to the south of the Feni River in southeastern Bangladesh is the Chittagong region, which has many hills, hillocks, valleys, and forests and is quite different in aspect from other parts of the country. The coastal plain is partly sandy and partly composed of saline clay; it extends southward from the Feni River to the town of Cox’s Bazar and varies in width from 1 to 10 miles (1.6 to 16 km). The region has a number of offshore islands and one coral reef , St. Martin’s, off the coast of Myanmar . The hilly area known as the Chittagong Hill Tracts, in the far southeast, consists of low hills of soft rocks, mainly clay and shale. The north-south ranges are generally below 2,000 feet (600 metres) in elevation.

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Bangladesh — History and Culture

Like many other colonized countries, Bangladesh has been through centuries of struggle before finally attaining independence. Its history is marked by Hindu, Buddhist and Muslim influences. Tribal and religious culture is very well preserved in many ancient towns and you’ll be surprised at the sheer number of archeological sites and attractions.

Mahasthangarh (Karatoa River) is the oldest archeological site in all of Bangladesh, and is said to have been inhabited since the 3rd century BC. It is home to a wide range of ruins, including the famous Govinda Bhita Temple, Parasuramer Bedi and Mankalir Kunda, all of which showcase the country’s Hindu roots. Excavations in the Mainamati-Lalmai range revealed various Buddhist remains dating back to the 8th through the 12th centuries. The Mainamati Ruins (Comilla District) stretch 11 miles in the hilly region and consist of more than 50 ancient Buddhist sites and monasteries with priceless stone and bronze sculptures depicting gods and goddesses.

Bangladesh’s early history can be characterized by conflicts, power struggles, shifts in authority, and bloody disasters. Political instability plagued the territory from the early days of Alexander the Great, which continued through the Muslim rule in the 13th century and to the arrival of European traders and settlers during the 15th century. Britain triumphed in gaining economic influence and political rule (by the mid 1700’s), reigning over West Bengal for almost 200 years.

After WWII, Britain was forced to downsize its empire, leaving the future of the Bangladesh territory in the hands of Viceroy Lord Mountbatten, working with Mahatma Gandhi to unite the two major religious factions in the area — the Hindus and the Muslims. Fearful of being a minority in a Hindu-dominated India, the Muslims made it impossible to bond the groups, which led to a partitioning of the subcontinent into Punjab (the Muslim state) and Bengal (the Hindu state). Dominion status was granted to two successors, Pakistan and India. After a bloody exchange following the separation, the Hindus deserted both wings of Pakistan and moved into India, while the Muslims took over what was then known as West and East Pakistan.

Soon after, the two areas discovered they had nothing in common (besides their Muslim faith). Not only was the territory separated by some 994 miles of Indian land – they also had very different cultural backgrounds and spoke very different languages. Western dwellers knew Urdu, while eastern residents spoke Bangla. Economic disparities, unfair administration, and the declaration of Urdu as the national language in all of Pakistan led the Bengal-speaking east Pakistanis to assert themselves and demand self-government.

Succeeding events like the president’s refusal to open the National Assembly and the formation of the independent state of Bangladesh (literally Bangla-land/country) led to one of the century’s shortest and bloodiest wars. Indian forces supported the freedom movement, leading to an all out war between Pakistan and India. After nine months and more than three million casualties, Bangladesh was declared the 139th country in the world.

Historic events leading up to the liberation of Bangladesh are remembered through monuments at the National Martyrs’ Memorial in Sava and the Shaheed Minar (Dhaka Medical College). The Liberation War Museum (5 Segun Bagicha, Dhaka) contains some of the rarest archival photographs of the period along with items used by the martyr freedom fighters.

While greatly influenced by neighboring regions, Bangladesh has its own distinct cultural identity amidst the Jainism, Buddhism, Christianity, Islam and Hinduism. These differences can be seen in folklore, literature, music, tribal dances, festivities, and even in contemporary pop songs.

Bangladesh has produced popular poets like Dualat Kazi, Alaol and Chandi Das, who made notable contributions to Bengali literature. Drama is part of the old tradition, and there are many theater groups that regularly stage local performances and adaptations of European plays in the famous Natak Para theater in Dhaka, as well as in the university. Tribal dances are accompanied by popular folk music.

Clothing is another definitive aspect of the Bangladeshi culture. Women traditionally wear saris and salwar kameez , which are often made from finely woven, quilted or embroidered patchwork. Weaving fabric is one of the oldest art forms. The lungi or sarong is a special garment for men, though it is rarely used today.

Bangladesh is a Muslim country, and visitors are expected to be respectful and observe proper etiquette, especially when visiting religious sites. Some mosques may be off-limits to non-Muslims and some areas may be forbidden for women. Take off your shoes before entering and ask permission to take photographs before pointing and shooting. The same applies when photographing random people on the street, especially women. A very conservative country, women should wear long skirts or trousers and modest tops even when just walking around town.

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Bangladesh - Guide to Culture, Etiquette and Business Practices

What will you learn about bangladesh.

You will gain an understanding of a number of key areas including:

• Religion and beliefs
• Culture and society
• Social etiquette and customs
• Business culture and etiquette

Stereotyping

Remember this is only a very basic level introduction to Bangladeshi culture and the people; it cannot account for the diversity within Bangladeshi society and is not meant in any way to stereotype all Bangladeshi people you may meet!

Facts and Statistics

• Capital: Dhaka
• Location: Southern Asia, bordering the Bay of Bengal, between Burma and India
• Climate: tropical; mild winter (October to March); hot, humid summer (March to June); humid, warm rainy monsoon (June to October)
• Population: 170+ million (2020)
• Ethnic Make-up: Bengali 98%, tribal groups, non-Bengali Muslims
• Religions:  Muslim 83%, Hindu 16%, other 1%

Boys create a human tower in Araihazar. Photo by Ashraful Haque Akash on Unsplash

Languages in Bangladesh

The official language is Bangla, also known as Bengali:

• Bangla is the first language of more than 98 percent of the population. It is written in its own script, derived from that of Sanskrit. Some people in Bangladesh can also speak English as well as Hindi and Urdu.
• Bangla vocabulary shows many influences. These include a strong Islamic influence seen in the greetings of "Salaam aleykum" (Peace be unto you) and "Khoda hafez" (God Bless you) and nouns from the Arab world such as "dokan" (shop), "tarikh"(date), "kolom"(pen) and "bonduk" (gun).
• In West Bengal, the Hindu influence is greater with the use of the Hindu greeting "Namashkar".
• English has also had an influence on Bangla. During the days of the Raj many words of English origin such as "tebil" (table), "tiffin" (archaic in modern day English meaning snack box) entered Bangla. In more recent time the ever rising global nature of English has led to words such as "television", "telephone", "video" and "radio" being adopted by Bangla. However, unlike India, there has never been the need for English as a lingua franca and thus Bangla is the state language of Bangladesh.
• In the business setting, most Bangladeshis are able to speak English.

Bangladeshi Culture & Society

• Bangladesh is a hierarchical society.
• People are respected because of their age and position.
• Older people are naturally viewed as wise and are granted respect.
• Bangladeshis expect the most senior male, by age or position, to make decisions that are in the best interest of the group. This is also valid in businesses, the majority of which will be family owned/run.
• In a business setting, educational qualifications, seniority and expertise go a long way to increasing one’s position within the hierarchy. As such, you should include your qualifications on your business card and ensure that your Bangladeshi counterparts are aware of your expertise. You should do so, however, in a way that won’t be construed as ‘boastful’.
• The majority of Bangladeshis are Muslim . However, the Islamic religion is often heavily mixed with pre-Islam folk traditions.
• Bangladeshis identify with the folk traditions of Bengali culture. This includes belief in shamanism and the powers of Fakirs (Muslim holy men who are exorcists and faith healers), Ojhaa (shamins with magical healing powers), and Bauls (religious mendicants and wandering musicians).
• There is a strong tradition of music, dance, and literature that includes classical devotions of Hindu and Muslim music.
• Religion plays an incredibly important role in Bangladesh and it’s important that you never under-estimate its influences. Religion shapes many areas of Bangladeshi culture and, many Bangladeshis prioritise their religious identity over their national identity. However, it’s also important to note that Bangladeshis practice a tolerant form of Islam and are generally very accepting of non Muslims.
• If you are going to work in Bangladesh, or with Bangladeshi people, then it’s a good idea to develop an understanding of some of the more important principles of Islam.
• Islam defines many of the festivals in Bangaldesh. These include the two Eids (one after Ramadan and one after the Hajj) Shab-e-Qadr (the night of power), Milad un-Nabi (birth date of the Prophet Muhammad) and Shab-e-Barat (the night of the fortune).
• Hindu influences festivals include Durga Puja and Kali Puja (community worshipping of Goddess Durga and Kali).
• On the whole an entire community participates in each other's religious ceremonies.

A mosque in Sylhet. Photo by Marwan Ahmed on Unsplash .

Customs and Etiquette in Bangladesh

Meeting & greeting.

• Greetings usually take place between members of the same sex.
• The hand shake is common although they may feel rather limp.
• Formal introductions between the genders outside of the family will only really happen within the business context. If you are meeting with a member of the opposite sex, then wait to see if they will offer you their hand before venturing to offer your own. If they don’t offer you their hand, then consider placing your right hand over your heart and giving a slight nod of your head. This is a perfectly acceptable way to meet and greet within Bangladesh and is also a common practice across other Muslim majority countries..
• The traditional greeting for Muslims is Asalamu alaikum to which the response is wa alaikum salam.
• Naming conventions are very much based on the hierarchical nature of Bangladeshi society.
• Bangladeshis will append a suffix to a person's name to denote respect and the level of closeness between the two people.
• It is common for people to use kinship titles within their community, regardless of whether there is a formal blood tie. If someone interacts with someone slightly older than them, then they may refer to them as big sister, or, big brother. If someone is a generation older, then they may be referred to as aunty or uncle.
• In general, age dictates how people are addressed.
• If people are of the same age, they use first names.

Gift Giving Etiquette

• Gifts are mainly given between family members at religious holidays, especially after Ramadan and Hajj.
• In cities, it is becoming more common for gifts to be given on birthdays.
• In Bangladesh the importance of gifts is in the thought rather than the value. Part of the reason lies in the fact that gifts should be generally reciprocated and it would be considered rude to offer someone a gift that is difficult to reciprocate.
• Ensure that you are mindful of religion when giving gifts to Muslims. Don’t give anything that contains alcohol, non-halal meat products or that contains inappropriate imagery.
• If giving gifts to Hindus in Bangladesh, then avoid giving them anything that contains leather as cows have a special veneration in the Hindu religion. You should also avoid giving gifts that contain meat products as many Hindus are vegetarian.
• Never give money as this will be taken offensively and avoid giving white flowers, such as frangipanes as these are typically reserved for funerals.
• Fruit, nuts, pastries, sweets, good quality chocolates or souvenirs, from one’s home country, make good gifts.
• When presenting your gift, use either two hands or your right hand as the left hand is not considered clean in the Islamic religion.
• It is customary in Bangladesh to open gifts in private.

Dining Etiquette

• If meeting with people for dinner here are some basic rules on etiquette and protocol:
• If invited to a meal and you are unable to make it, then it is rude to flatly turn the invitation down. One should always use less direct language to suggest that it may be difficult such as "I will try." or "I will have to see".
• Meals both inside the house and outside will usually be segregated along gender lines.  As such, if you attend a meal as a couple, then the female will eat with other females and the male will eat with other males.
• Many people eat with their hands and it may be that you share food from a common dish.
• Ensure you wash your hands before eating in the event that you are required to eat with your hands.  If you are not comfortable eating with your hands, then it's perfectly acceptable to ask for utensils.
• Guests are generally served first then the oldest, continuing in order of seniority.
• Do not start eating until the oldest person at the table begins.
• You will constantly be urged to take more food. Simply saying "I'm full" will be taken as a polite gesture and not accepted at face value. It is therefore always best to pace yourself to allow for more servings.
• The left hand is considered unclean so only eat, pass dishes or drink with the right hand.

Covering up for COVID. Photo taken in Moheskhali Upazila by Md. Akil Khan on Unsplash

Business Culture and Etiquette in Bangladesh

Communication styles.

• Bangladeshis are quite implicit/indirect communicators. They tend to communicate in long, rich and contextualized sentences which only make sense when properly understood in relation to body language.
• It is important for people who come from implicit/direct cultures to understand that their communication styles may be seen as rude and the information provided inadequate.
• If you are from a direct communication culture, then it's important that you soften your message and that you elaborate where possible. Also take the time to try and observe the context in which your Bangladeshi counterpart is speaking.  Be aware of visual cues, potential silence, body language and what is not said, in addition to what is said.
• Personal space is less of an issue in Bangladesh than many European cultures. Bengalis stand close when speaking to someone of the same gender and touch is common.
• However, if you are speaking to someone of the opposite sex, then it’s important to increase the personal space and to avoid prolonged eye contact.
• Business etiquette in Bangladesh is reasonably formal. Proper behaviour is expected.
• Men greet each other with a handshake upon arriving and leaving.
• Foreign men should nod to a Bangladeshi woman unless she extends her hand. Businessmen should be addressed by the term "Bahadur" ("Sir"), while women may be addressed as "Begum" ("Madam"). This may be used with or without the surname.
• Wait until your counterpart moves to a first name basis before you do so.

Business Card Etiquette

• Business cards are exchanged after the initial introduction.
• Educational qualifications are valued so include any university degrees.
• Present your business card with the right hand.
• Treat business cards given to you with respect. Merely glancing at it then throwing it on the table would be rude. Study it, comment on it and ideally place it into a business card holder.

Business Meetings

• Meetings in Bangladesh are generally the place where decisions are disseminated rather than made.
• They will usually be led by the most senior present who sets the agenda, the content, and the pace of the activities.
• Meeting structures are not very linear in Bangladesh. There may be an agenda and a starting time, but they only serve as guidelines.
• Completing a meeting fully takes priority over time and may extend well past any scheduled end time.
• Meetings may commence with some small talk.
• Communication is formal and follows a hierarchical structure. Deference to the most senior person in the group is expected. This is especially true when dealing with government officials.
• One should never let their level of professionalism slip. Casual behaviour may be misinterpreted as a lack of respect.
• Never lose your temper or show emotion. This may lead to a loss of face which will mean a loss of dignity and respect.
• The need to avoid a loss of face is also reflected in communication styles. Rather than say no or disappoint people Bangladeshis will phrase sentiments in such as way that it is up to people to read between the lines to understand what is being implied. Phrases such as "we will try", "that may be difficult", or "we will have to give that some though" may really mean "this can't be done". . Therefore, it is important to ask questions in several ways so you can be certain what was meant by a vague response. Silence is often used as a communication tool.
• Many people comment on the lack of smiles in Bangladesh. This has nothing to do with unfriendliness but rather related to the fact that a serious face is believed to demonstrate maturity.
• Read more in our Bangladesh Management Guide

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Almost everything you wanted to know about Bangladesh

• Festivals and Traditions

Bangla New Year

Bangladeshi daily life is replete with traditions and festivals that reflect the unique culture and tradition of Bangladeshis. Some of the tradition and customs are as ancient as prehistoric days, while others are relatively recent. The indigenous customs and festivals that has been preserved and nurtured through the ages are principally center around agricultural practices.  These include nabonno (the festival of the new harvest) and pawhela boishAkh (the Bengali new Year). Religion has also played a distinct role in shaping the mores and traditions of Bangladeshi life.

Eid Mubarak

Bangladesh is a predominantly Muslim country, and Islam’s adherents in Bangladesh celebrate the joyous festival of the two Eids, Eid-ul-Fitr, and Eid-ul-Azha, the month of Ramadan, Shab-e-Qadr, Shab-e-Barat etc. Hindus in Bangladesh celebrate Durga Puja,  Kali Puja and Janmastami. The Buddhists celebrate Buddho Purnima and the Christians Christmas. These are just a few of the religious festivals and feasts that Bangladeshis celebrate in their day to day life.

National occasions also mark Bangladeshi life, and these include Independence Day, Victory Day, and the historic Language Martyr’s Day.

Social customs like birth, naming ceremony, marriage, and death too have a distinct Bangladeshi flavor with each ethnic and religious group having their own unique way to mark these traditions.

Geography Notes

Essay on bangladesh: an outstanding essay on bangladesh.

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Last among the nations to emerge on the Indian subcontinent after a brief, brutal war in 1971 with Pakistan, of which it had been a part since 1947, Bangladesh (liter­ally Bengal country and formerly known as East Pakistan) is a small, impoverished and overcrowded nation. Before inde­pendence it was separated from Pakistan’s western region (formerly known as West Pakistan) by some 920 miles (1,554 km) of Indian Territory; its political link to West Pakistan was based largely on religious grounds.

Dissimilar in most other cultural traits (language, food habits, literary tradi­tions and history), the eastern wing of Pakistan had lived its 24 years of existence in relative neglect, and exploitation. With only one-sixth of the area of Pakistan (54,000 sq. miles or 148,000 sq. km) but over half of its population (now close to 127 million), the new nation faced seemingly insurmountable problems of exploding population, grinding poverty and lack of overall development. Unable to feed itself, it relied heavily on food, material, and technical aid from many countries, includ­ing India, which had helped it to win freedom from Pakistan.

Physical Characteristics:

Nearly all of the land surface of Bangladesh is below 50 feet (15 meters) above sea level and consists of a flood plain of the Ganga-Brahmaputra Rivers and their tributaries. The delta is ac­tive and continually silting. The only hilly areas are bordering India where land rises to about 1,000 feet (304 meters), and in the southeastern section near Burma border where the relief is between 500 to 2,000 feet.

The climate is everywhere warm and humid. Rainfall is plentiful, varying be­tween 70 inches (1,778 mm) annually in the west and 100 inches (2,540 mm) in the east; the regime controlled by the two monsoon seasons but most precipitation falls during the summer monsoons.

Nature has also dealt harshly with Bangladesh. The nearly flat topography is subjected to annual flooding. To the south, the country lies open to the passage of tropical storms which periodically bring large scale destruction to the densely set­tled southern sections of the deltaic plains of the three big rivers: Padma (local name for Ganga), Jamuna (local name for Brahmaputra), and Meghna, and their in­numerable tributaries.

The November 1970 typhoon, which took as many as half a million lives and destroyed 400,000 homes, was among the greatest natural dis­asters of the 20th century. Similar, if not quite as devastating, events are a common and nearly an annual phenomenon.

Cultural Patterns:

Ethnically, Bangla­desh is one of the most homogeneous nations: 98 percent of the population con­sists of Bengali speakers. The Bengalis— both Muslims and Hindus—are justly proud of their linguistic culture, for Ben­gali language possesses a far richer and maturer literature than most other Indo- European languages. Islam is the predominant religion; and Muslims from 88 percent of the population.

The Hindu minority is substantial, consisting of nearly 11 percent of the total population and composed primarily of the under­privileged sections, who have, at times, been immigrating to the neighboring In­dia. There was a mass exodus of nearly 10 million persons to India during the 1971 War of Independence with Pakistan con­sisting almost entirely of the Hindus who felt insecure to remain within the country.

Most of them have since returned back, but a small trickle continues to immigrate to the adjoining states of West Bengal, As­sam, Meghalaya and Tripura in India. During recent years many have immi­grated to cities including the West Bengal in India and India’s capital city of New Delhi.

Economy and Resources:

Agriculture is the dominant sector of economy. Nearly all of the cultivatable area (about 74 per­cent of its total land) is under crops—rice and to a lesser degree wheat for subsis­tence; jute and tea for cash. Jute is the mainstay of the economy, producing a substantial part of its export earnings. It is Bangladesh’s important export surpassed only recently by ready-made garments which became Bangladesh’s leading export in 1988.

Tea is another export item. Con­ditions for rice cultivation are ideal— ample rainfall, high temperatures, very fer­tile alluvial soils, and almost level topography. Although two to three crops of rice are raised, low yields and high population densities (now approaching 2,230 persons per sq mile or 6,862 per sq km) have made the country chronically a food deficit area.

During the 1970s and 1980s the “Green Revolution” helped boost rice production dramatically through increased acreage in high-yielding varieties of rice. The expansion of wheat as a second grain crop also allowed dietary di­versification. Although the country approached self-sufficiency in food grains in the mid 1980s, increasing population re­mains a serious problem. The Malthusian threat of hunger still looms over a nation already given to recurrent famines, persist­ent malnutrition, poverty, and typhoons.

The cultivation of jute (produced as a commercial crop) occupies land that could otherwise be used for rice. It s production related to the low-wage hand labor so abundantly available, has suffered lately in competition with the introduction of syn­thetic fibers into the world market. Lacking in most minerals, Bangladesh’s modest resources of peat, natural gas and timber await exploitation as the nation’s energies are spent on combating problems of overpopulation and economic underde­velopment.

The capital and port city of Dhaka (6.1 million) is centrally located in the delta region. Famous for its fine Muslims and other handicraft industries in the 17th century, it has been a historic/politico-regional center of Bengal. At the time of India’s partition, the city contained nearly one-half of its jute manufacturing mills; now it is the premier industrial center of Bangladesh containing besides jute mills, sugar factories, oil pressing mills, and a few glass and cement factories.

The jute and cotton textile industry has since undergone considerable expansion. Textiles (ready- made garments, and jute manufactured material) account for nearly two-thirds of country’s exports that pass through Dhaka. Chittagong (2 million) is the country’s other major port.

Khulna with a population approaching one million is an important commercial and manufacturing center in the southern region, and Rajshani (over half a million) and Mymensingh are other regional market centers located in the western and eastern parts of the country.

Bangladesh is a sad paradox. The country possesses rich, fertile land ca­pable of producing several subsistence and commercial crops, but ever increasing population and relative neglect have left the country poor and underdeveloped. An assessment of its future prospects is diffi­cult to make. Some diversification of the economy is possible. Most mineral wealth, modest though it may be, remains un­tapped.

Natural gas reserves might be used in the production of fertilizers. The forest products’ industry can be also developed. Diversification of commercial and subsis­tence crops can relieve pressure on jute, tea, and rice. Fishing as an important re­source and a major export, can be further expanded. But population remains a seri­ous problem.

Currently, Bangladesh stands close to the bottom of the world’s coun­tries in economic development, along with such nations as Chad and Bhutan, which contain only a tiny fraction of its popula­tion. The country suffered grievously during its war of independence. Millions streamed across the border into neighbor­ing India. Disruption of transport and of thousands of villages and settlements added to the misery and horror that followed the war from which the country has not since completely recovered.

Since the 1960s the issue of population planning has been taken seriously by the administration. Through its own efforts and the help of international donors (Bang­ladesh is one of the largest recipient of international aid in population control), there has been a noticeable decline in the average annual increase in population from 2.6 percent a year during the 1960s and 1970s to 2.3 percent between 1980 and 1995, and by 1999, it had fallen below 1.8 percent a year. During the late 1990’s, Bangladesh made major efforts to meet the food needs of its growing population, and the country is now largely self-sufficient in its food requirements.

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“Culture Matters”: Towards Understanding the Crisis of Culture in Bangladesh

• First Online: 22 April 2022

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• Taj Hashmi 2  

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This chapter aims at offering a theoretical and hypothetical approach to understanding the crisis of culture in Bangladesh, a nation forever plagued by crisis. The backwardness of the country is attributed by some to lack of leadership, while others attribute it to demographic pressures, natural disasters and colonial exploitation. Nevertheless, with considerable infrastructure development and lessened hunger to some degree, Bangladesh is no longer considered a basket case. The key factor for a country’s growth, development and viability is debated, whether it is good leadership or the right political culture. Bangladesh has inherent cultural problems that prevent effective governance and growth. Furthermore, the culture that hinders good governance and socio-economic development in the country also prevents the right type of leadership from taking over. There is no reason to believe that the country can become developed only by developing its infrastructure. Low-wage labour, skyscrapers, flyovers, metros and luxury malls do not make countries developed. Our argument in this chapter is that democracy, equality, freedom and a government accountable to the people lead to developmental success. To achieve these prerequisites, the people must undergo a cultural transformation into members of a “liberal society,” either naturally or through mass education and collective leadership by a dedicated group of citizens, as was the case during Japan’s Meiji Restoration. Illiberal societies cannot support liberal democracies. Understanding William Kornhauser’s concept of “mass society” as well as Oscar Lewis’s, Samuel Huntington’s, David Landes’s and others’ arguments that “culture matters” is essential in understanding Bangladesh’s underdevelopment. Over the years, history and geography have contributed to shaping the popular and politic al culture of Bangladeshis, but their religious and secular traditions, beliefs and values have had a greater influence . Backwardness, poor governance and poverty in Bangladesh are all related to Bangladeshis’ collective culture. Understanding this is crucial to understanding Bangladesh’s economic, political and social behaviour.

Even the poorest and least articulate layers of society have considerable potential for resisting and obstructing measures intended to coerce them. —Gunnar Myrdal, Asian Drama: An Inquiry into the Poverty of Nations, Vol. 1, Pantheon, New York 1968, p. 66 The historian may not erase or rewrite the past to make it more pleasing; and the economist whose easy assumption that every country is destined to develop sooner or later, must be ready to look hard at failure. —David S. Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations: Why Some Are So Rich and Some So Poor , W.W. Norton & Company, New York 1998, p. 5

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Eric Wolf, Peasant Wars of the Twentieth Century , Harper & Row, London, 1969.

UNESCO, Report of the World Commission on Culture and Development , 1994, p. 7.

Max Weber, Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism and Other Writings , Penguin 2002, passim.

Protestant Ethic …, Preface to New Edition by Talcott Parsons, Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York 1937, p. XVIII.

Oscar Lewis, Five Families: Mexican Case Studies in the Culture of Poverty , Basic Books, Inc. New York 1959, p. 2.

A. R. Desai, “Reliance on Rich Farmers for Development: its Implications”, in his (ed), Rural Sociology in India , Popular Prakashan, Bombay 1984, p. 886.

Marshall Sahlins, “A Brief Cultural History of ‘Culture’”, UNESCO Report of the World Commission on Culture and Development , 1994, p. 21.

Ibid., p. 23.

Department of Economic Affairs, UN, National and Per Capita Income of Seventy Countries in 1949 , New York, 1950, pp. 14–15.

Henry Bernstein (ed), Underdevelopment & Development: The Third World Today , Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, 1978, pp. 13–15.

Ibid., p. 13.

Francis Fukuyama, Trust: Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity , Free Press, New York 1995, p. xiv.

Eric Stokes, The Peasant and the Raj: Studies in Agrarian Society and Peasant Rebellion in Colonial India , Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1978, pp. 280–2.

Ferdinand Tonnies, Community and Society (Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft) , Routledge, London, 2017 (reprint), passim.

Francis Fukuyama, Trust: Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity , Free Press, New York 1995, p. 45.

Ibid., pp. 48–9.

Minute by the Hon’ble T. B. Macaulay, dated 2 February 1835, http://home.iitk.ac.in/~hcverma/Article/Macaulay-Minutes.pdf .

The Works of Lord Macaulay: Essays and Biographies , Volume III, Longmans, Green & Co., London 1898, pp. 425–6.

John Beams, Memoirs of a Bengal Civilian , Chatto & Windus, London 1961, pp. 276 and 285.

British War Cabinet Papers, WP (44) FG 362 (Proof) L/PO/11/3 (Kolkata Archives, Writer’s Building).

Robert Carstairs, The Little World of an Indian District Officer , Macmillan & Co., Limited, London 1912, p. 26.

W.W. Hunter, The Indian Musalmans (first published in 1871), W. Rahman, Barnalipi Mudrayan, Dacca 1975, p. 141.

Ibid., p. 153.

Ataur Rahman Khan, Ozarotir Dui Bochhor (Two Years as Minister), Abhijan Printing House, Dhaka 1963, pp. 162–4, 322–3.

Peter Singer (ed), Ethics , Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1994, “The Long Search for the Origins of Ethics: Introduction”, pp. 17–18.

Prothom Alo (Bengali daily), 8 May 2001.

See Taj Hashmi, Pakistan as a Peasant Utopia , Routledge, London 2019 (reprint); and Joya Chatterjee, Bengal Divided: Hindu Communalism and Partition, 1932–1947 , Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1994, passim.

Oliver Roy, The Failure of Political Islam , I.B. Tauris Publishers, London, 1994, passim.

“Is South Asia Condemned to Backwardness?”, ISAS Insights , No. 183, 27 August 2012, National University of Singapore.

Fareed Zakaria, “The Rise of Illiberal Democracy”, Foreign Affairs , November-December 1997, which later came out as a bestseller, The Future of Freedom: Illiberal Democracy at Home and Abroad , W.W. Norton & Company, New York 2007.

Denis McQuail, Mass Communication Theory (fifth edition), Sage, London 2005, p. 449; William Kornhauser, The Politics of Mass Society , The Free Press, Third Edition, New York 1963, p. 5.

Encyclopaedia Britannica , https://www.britannica.com/topic/mass-society .

William Kornhauser, The Politics of Mass Society , The Free Press, Third Edition, New York 1963, p. 16.

Ibid., pp. 22–3.

Ibid., pp. 26–7.

Gustave Le Bon, The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind , The Floating Press, Auckland 2009, p. 18.

William Kornhauser, The Politics of Mass Society , The Free Press, Third Edition, New York 1963, pp. 30–3, 41.

Ibid., pp. 119–21; 145–65; 174–222.

Ibid., pp. 227–37.

Ahmed Kamal, “A Land of Eternal Eid: Independence, People and Politics in East Bengal”, Dhaka University Studies , Part A, Vol. 46, No. 1, June 1989.

Jeffrey Sachs, The End of Poverty: Economic Possibilities for Our Time , Penguin Books 2005, p. 1.

Dr. Muhammad Yunus’s interview with the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (Radio), March 25, 1997 https://www.dw.com/en/muhammad-yunus-put-poverty-in-the-museum/a-16778589 .

Clarence Maloney, Behavior and Poverty in Bangladesh , University Press Limited, Dhaka 1991, p. vii.

Ibid., p. viii.

David Landes, “Culture Makes Almost All the Differences”, in Lawrence E. Harrison and Samuel P. Huntington (eds), Culture Matters: How Values Shape Human Progress , Basic Books, New York 2000.

David Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations: Why Some Are So Rich and Some So Poor , W.W. Norton & Company, New York 1998, p. 517.

Samuel P. Huntington, “Foreword: Cultures Count”, in Lawrence E. Harrison and Samuel P. Huntington (eds), Culture Matters: How Values Shape Human Progress , Basic Books, New York 2000, p. xiii.

Daron Acemoglu and James Robinson, The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty: Why Nations Fail , Crown Publishers, New York 2012, front flap.

David Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations: Why Some Are So Rich and Some So Poor , W.W. Norton & Company, New York 1998, p. 5.

Ibid., p. 12.

Lawrence Harrison, Underdevelopment Is a State of Mind: The Latin American Case , Harvard Center for International Affairs, 1985, p. xv.

Ibid., p. xxii.

Ibid., pp. xxiv–v.

“Culture Makes Almost All the Difference”, in Lawrence Harrison and Samuel Huntington (eds) Culture Matters, How Values Shape Human Progress , Basic Books, New York 2000, p. 3.

Ibid., pp. 3–4.

Orlando Patterson, The Ordeal of Integration: Progress and Resentment in America’s “Racial” Crisis , Perseus Counterprint, Washington DC, 1997, p. 109, cited in Lawrence Harrison, Underdevelopment Is a State of Mind: The Latin American Case , Harvard Center for International Affairs, 1985, p. xxxi.

Lawrence Harrison, Underdevelopment Is a State of Mind: The Latin American Case , Harvard Center for International Affairs, 1985, p. xxv.

Victor Purcell, The Chinese in Southeast Asia , Oxford University Press, London 1951, p. 325.

Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson, The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty: Why Nations Fail , Crown Publishers, New York 2012, pp. 364–7, 446–50, and 458–60.

Ibid., pp. 432–3.

Taj Hashmi, Pakistan as a Peasant Utopia , Routledge, New York 2019, p. 49.

David Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations: Why Some Are So Rich and Some So Poor , W.W. Norton & Company, New York 1998, p. 8.

Ibid., p. 10.

Ronald Inglehart, “Culture and Democracy” in Lawrence Harrison and Samuel Huntington (eds), Culture Matters: How Values Shape Human Progress , Basic Books, New York 2000, p. 80.

Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson, The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty: Why Nations Fail , Crown Publishers, New York 2012, pp. 70–95, 98–104.

Ronald Inglehart, “Culture and Democracy” in Lawrence Harrison and Samuel Huntington (eds), Culture Matters: How Values Shape Human Progress , Basic Books, New York 2000, p. 227.

Ibid., p. 232.

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Hashmi, T. (2022). “Culture Matters”: Towards Understanding the Crisis of Culture in Bangladesh. In: Fifty Years of Bangladesh, 1971-2021. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97158-8_9

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Shomita Mahmud

• March 9, 2023
• Essay , Identity

The Bangla Language & the Fight for Belonging

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The Bangla Language & the Fight for Belonging by Shomita Mahmud

Culture is the basis of humanity, and my culture is being Bengali, as in from Bangladesh. To me, being Bengali includes the foods that we eat, the clothes that we wear, and also the way we go about our lives. We are each taught different concepts of being respectful and how to speak, or what is socially acceptable versus what is not. I was born and raised in America, but I still have ties with my culture because I was raised in a household that kept up with traditions from back home. Along with growing up Bengali, I was also raised with the ideals of my religion, Islam. Majority of Bangladesh’s population is Muslim, including my parents, so they also grew up being taught the ideals that they taught me. An example of these ideals is to hand items to people with our right hand. This is more of a sign of respect in Bengali culture, but in Islam, the prophet Muhammad (PBUH) had tended to use his right hand to interact with others. Muslims are taught that the more we follow prophet Muhammad, the better we are as a Muslim. More times than not, many individuals in my culture and religion force the two to coincide with each other, even if it did not actually mean they belonged together, such as saying that something may be prohibited because of our religion, when in reality, it is just a cultural thing that is seen to be wrong.

Although I was raised in such a household, I still do not know a lot about the deeper history of my country. Bangladesh was a part of Pakistan until 1971. For a bit more context, up until 1947, India was a part of Great Britain. During this time, there was a great divide between the Hindus and Muslims in India, so Pakistan became independent from them. According to O.H. K. Spate’s article “The Partition of India and the Prospects of Pakistan,” Muslims in India “struggled for existence” (Spate 6). This is something I find important to note, as it feels a bit condescending to me after seeing the history of Bangladesh. When Pakistan was formed, it automatically became two parts because the two, East and West, were divided by land. In order to get to West Pakistan from East, or vice versa, one would have to pass through India because there was no direct way to get to it otherwise. With the vast distance between the two parts of Pakistan, each side adopted their own languages; West Pakistan spoke Urdu, but East Pakistan spoke Bangla, which resulted in having small differences in the cultures. At one point, the main government, which was located in West Pakistan, wanted to make Urdu the official language. Before Bangladesh ultimately decided to fight to separate from Pakistan in 1971, they fought for their language. The official language of Pakistan was only Urdu for a long time, but after the Bengali language movement in 1948 and 1952, Bangla also officially became a part of the official languages in Pakistan in 1956 (Rahman 838). Though written out, it seems as though this was a quick act, but it was far from it. According to scholar, Tariq Rahman, West Pakistani press and media had “declared that Hindus and communists had created the Bengali language movement as a way to break Pakistan up into parts (Rahman 833). When looking at this with the knowledge we have now, this is far from the truth. After the Bengalis of Pakistan had their own official language in the country, they began to realize how different they were from West Pakistanis. This was around the time, they decided that it was time to stand up to the West Pakistani military for their “indiscriminate attacks and declare independence”(Hossain 28). Bangladesh gained their independence after Pakistan’s surrender in 1971. Today, Pakistan and Bangladesh have very similar cultures, but the small differences in food and traditions are what differentiate the two.

One more thing I learned from my parents was that there is a song dedicated to the individuals that fought for the language. It is called “Amar Bhaiyer Rokte Rangano” which loosely translates to “stained in my brother’s blood.” One of the lines of the song that really stood out to me is “Ami ki bhulite pari?” which translates to “can I even forget?” in which the lyricist, Abdul Gaffar Chowdhury, asks how he could ever forget the blood, sweat, and tears that the strong individuals had put in. This research has shown me just how important language is. Without it, one cannot properly express themself. Not only is the Bengali language a form of expression for Bangladeshis from all around the world, but it is a way to feel comforted and accepted in a society in which you may not be. Such as my dad in America: he felt like an outcast, but seeing another person speaking Bangla gave him a sense of comfort in himself and allowed him to feel like he belonged somewhere.

Works Cited

Hossain, Mokerrom. “Bangladesh War of Independence: A Moral Issue.” Economic and Political Weekly , vol. 44, no. 5, 2009, pp. 26–29. JSTOR , http://www.jstor.org/stable/40278454. Accessed 10 Sep. 2022 .

Rahman, Tariq. “Language and Ethnicity in Pakistan.” Asian Survey , vol. 37, no. 9, 1997, pp. 833–39. JSTOR , https://doi.org/10.2307/2645700 . Accessed 12 Sep. 2022.

Spate, O. H. K. “The Partition of India and the Prospects of Pakistan.” Geographical Review, vol. 38, no. 1, 1948, pp. 5–29. JSTOR , https://doi.org/10.2307/210736 . Accessed 16 Sep. 2022.

(Image by Flickr user Rajiv Ashrafi ; used under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 )

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Essays on Bangladesh

The importance of writing an essay on bangladesh.

Writing an essay on Bangladesh is important for several reasons. Firstly, Bangladesh is a country with a rich history, culture, and traditions that are worth exploring and showcasing. By writing an essay on Bangladesh, you can help to promote a better understanding and appreciation of this diverse and vibrant nation.

Additionally, writing an essay on Bangladesh allows you to delve into important issues such as poverty, gender inequality, and environmental challenges that the country faces. This can help to raise awareness and inspire action towards addressing these pressing issues.

Furthermore, writing an essay on Bangladesh provides an opportunity to celebrate the country's achievements and contributions to the world. From its thriving textile industry to its renowned literary and artistic achievements, Bangladesh has much to be proud of and writing an essay can help to highlight these accomplishments.

Writing Tips

When writing an essay on Bangladesh, it is important to conduct thorough research and gather accurate and up-to-date information. This can be done by consulting reputable sources such as academic journals, government publications, and reliable news outlets.

It is also crucial to approach the topic with sensitivity and respect. Be mindful of cultural differences and avoid making sweeping generalizations about the people and traditions of Bangladesh.

Another important writing tip is to structure your essay in a clear and logical manner. Start with an that provides an overview of the topic, followed by body paragraphs that delve into specific aspects of Bangladesh, and conclude with a summary of your key points.

Finally, be sure to proofread and edit your essay carefully to ensure that it is well-written and free of errors. This will help to present a polished and professional piece of writing that effectively conveys your insights and ideas about Bangladesh.

The economic development of Bangladesh: challenges and opportunities Bangladesh is a developing country in South Asia with a rapidly growing economy. The country has made significant progress in recent years, but it still faces many challenges in achieving sustainable economic development. This essay will explore the main challenges and opportunities for economic development in Bangladesh, including the role of the government, foreign investment, and the potential impact of climate change on the country's economy.

The impact of climate change on Bangladesh Bangladesh is one of the most vulnerable countries to the impacts of climate change, with a large population living in low-lying coastal areas. This essay will examine the potential impacts of climate change on Bangladesh, including rising sea levels, extreme weather events, and agricultural productivity. It will also discuss the efforts of the Bangladeshi government and international organizations to adapt to and mitigate the effects of climate change.

The Rohingya refugee crisis in Bangladesh In recent years, Bangladesh has been hosting a large number of Rohingya refugees who have fled violence and persecution in neighboring Myanmar. This essay will explore the causes and consequences of the Rohingya refugee crisis in Bangladesh, including the humanitarian, social, and economic impacts on the country. It will also discuss the response of the Bangladeshi government and international community to the crisis.

The role of women in Bangladesh's development Women in Bangladesh have made significant strides in recent years, with increasing access to education, employment, and political representation. This essay will examine the role of women in Bangladesh's development, including their contributions to the economy, society, and politics. It will also discuss the challenges and opportunities for women's empowerment in Bangladesh, including gender-based violence, discrimination, and access to healthcare and education.

The cultural diversity of Bangladesh Bangladesh is a culturally diverse country with a rich history and heritage. This essay will explore the cultural diversity of Bangladesh, including its languages, religions, traditions, and customs. It will also discuss the impact of globalization and modernization on Bangladeshi culture, as well as the efforts to preserve and promote the country's cultural heritage.

The education system in Bangladesh The education system in Bangladesh has undergone significant reforms in recent years, with a focus on increasing access to quality education for all. This essay will examine the current state of the education system in Bangladesh, including the challenges and opportunities for improving access, equity, and quality of education. It will also discuss the role of the government, private sector, and civil society in addressing the needs of the education system.

The healthcare system in Bangladesh Bangladesh faces many challenges in providing healthcare to its large and diverse population, including limited resources, infrastructure, and human resources. This essay will explore the state of the healthcare system in Bangladesh, including the main health issues, access to healthcare services, and the efforts to improve the quality and availability of healthcare. It will also discuss the role of the government, international organizations, and the private sector in addressing the healthcare needs of the country.

The political landscape of Bangladesh Bangladesh has a complex political landscape, with a history of political instability, corruption, and human rights abuses. This essay will examine the current state of the political landscape in Bangladesh, including the main political parties, the electoral system, and the challenges and opportunities for democratic governance. It will also discuss the role of civil society, media, and international actors in promoting political reform and accountability.

The tourism industry in Bangladesh Bangladesh has a rich natural beauty, cultural heritage, and historical sites that have the potential to attract tourists from around the world. This essay will explore the state of the tourism industry in Bangladesh, including the main tourist attractions, infrastructure, and the challenges and opportunities for promoting sustainable tourism. It will also discuss the role of the government, private sector, and international organizations in developing the tourism industry in Bangladesh.

The impact of globalization on Bangladesh Globalization has had a significant impact on Bangladesh, including changes in the economy, society, culture, and politics. This essay will examine the impact of globalization on Bangladesh, including the opportunities and challenges for the country's development. It will also discuss the role of trade, investment, technology, and migration in shaping the globalization process in Bangladesh.

The garment industry in Bangladesh The garment industry is a key driver of the economy in Bangladesh, with a significant impact on employment, exports, and economic growth. This essay will explore the state of the garment industry in Bangladesh, including the main challenges and opportunities for the sector. It will also discuss the social and environmental impacts of the garment industry, as well as the efforts to improve labor rights, workplace safety, and sustainability in the industry.

The impact of urbanization on Bangladesh Bangladesh is experiencing rapid urbanization, with a growing population and increasing pressure on urban infrastructure, services, and the environment. This essay will examine the impact of urbanization on Bangladesh, including the challenges and opportunities for sustainable urban development. It will also discuss the role of the government, private sector, and civil society in addressing the needs of urbanization in Bangladesh.

The role of technology in Bangladesh's development Technology has the potential to drive economic growth, innovation, and social development in Bangladesh. This essay will explore the role of technology in Bangladesh's development, including the main challenges and opportunities for the adoption and diffusion of technology. It will also discuss the impact of digitalization, e-commerce, and information and communication technologies on various sectors of the economy and society in Bangladesh.

The role of foreign aid and development assistance in Bangladesh Bangladesh has been a recipient of foreign aid and development assistance from various bilateral and multilateral sources to support its development efforts. This essay will examine the role of foreign aid and development assistance in Bangladesh, including the main challenges and opportunities for aid effectiveness. It will also discuss the impact of aid on poverty reduction, infrastructure development, and social services in Bangladesh.

The future of Bangladesh's development Bangladesh has made significant progress in recent years, but it still faces many challenges in achieving sustainable development. This essay will explore the future of Bangladesh's development, including the main opportunities and challenges for the country. It will also discuss the role of the government, private sector, civil society, and international community in shaping the future of Bangladesh's development.

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History of india: two bengal partitions, the concept of rohingya community, the sundarbans area review, the catastrophic cyclone of april 1991 in bangladesh, otec sites in bangladesh, assessment of city plans: dhaka structure plan 2016-2035, the return of retailers from bangladesh and the influence on the economy and society, problems and prospects of sme financing in bangladesh, pharmacovigilance: bangladesh in perspective, rural-urban differentials in selected sociodemographic characteristics of bangladeshi population, ict industry of bangladesh: problems and prospects, gender inequality in business sector in bangladesh, types of credit ratings, the influence of business environment between usa and china on bangladesh economy and trade, understanding the psychological and consumption behavior of bangladeshis towards foreign products, fintech, its impact across the globe and its future in bangladesh, the present status of loan defaults culture in bangladesh, the impact of climate change in bangladesh, an empirical study on financial risks in agriculture sector of bangladesh, relevant topics.

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Paragraph Name : Bangladeshi Culture

Answer: Bangladesh has its own culture and tradition. Bangladeshi culture reflects the behavior of individuals, there dresses, occasions, languages, livelihood, festivals, etc. The people of Bangladesh are greatly influenced by the faith. The prime religions are Islam, Hinduism, Christianity and Buddhism. Though each religion has different cultures and festivals, people live in peace and harmony with each other. A strong brotherhood prevails among them. Their way of living, food habit, clothes, values, etc. are almost same though they belong to different religions, regions and have different dialects. Every occasion is celebrated with the participation of each and every religious people. Bangladesh has a golden history. We have 21st, February (International Mother language day), 26th, March (Independence day), 16 th, December (Victory day), Pahela Baishakh (First day of Bengali New year), etc. People celebrate some of these days withe due respect and solemnity, and some other with joy and festivity. Bangladeshi culture and traditions are entirely reflected in these days. Bangladeshi people have the strong tradition of food. Rice is the staple food here. They usually take rice three times in a day with delicious dishes curry. Bangladeshi men wear lungi and women were saree. Different types of arts and crafts are seen in Bangladesh. Weaving pottery, terracotta, Nakshi kantha etc. are traditional in Bangladesh. Bangladeshi culture is enriched, but now the cultures of foreign countries are intruding into our culture. So, we should be careful and try to uphold our own cultures to the world.

English Word Meaning in Bangla: culture- সংস্কৃতি, tradition- ঐতিহ্য, reflect- প্রতিফলিত, influenced- প্রভাবিত, faith- বিশ্বাস, prime- প্রধান, peace and harmony- শান্তিপূর্ণভাবে, brotherhood- ভাতৃত্ব, prevail- বিরাজমান থাকা।

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Tamanna Salikuddin on What’s Next for Bangladesh's Democracy

Tuesday, August 27, 2024

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After protests forced longtime Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina to resign earlier this month, Bangladesh’s new interim government is “seeking, at this moment, to grasp that democratic spark” and “set forward the reforms that are going lead to a new political culture” in the country, says USIP’s  Tamanna Salikuddin .

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Bangladesh’s interim government led by Yunus lifts ban on the Islamist Jamaat-e-Islami party

FILE - Bangladesh’s figurehead President Mohammed Shahabuddin administers the oath of office to Nobel laureate Muhammad Yunus, right, as the head of Bangladesh’s interim government, in Dhaka, Bangladesh, on Aug. 8, 2024. (AP Photo/Rajib Dhar, File)

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DHAKA, Bangladesh (AP) — Bangladesh’s interim government led by Nobel laureate Muhammad Yunus on Wednesday lifted a ban on the Islamist Jamaat-e-Islami party that was imposed by the former prime minister who was ousted in nationwide protests against her rule.

Sheikh Hasina, who fled to India on Aug. 5, had banned the party as a “militant and terrorist” organization and blamed its student wing and other associate bodies for inciting chaos over a quota system for government jobs. The weeks of violent protests and Hasina’s crackdown left more than 600 people dead, according to U.N. estimates.

The Ministry of Home Affairs repealed the ban on Wednesday, paving the way for the party to resume its activities. It still needs to register with the Election Commission to contest polls.

There was no immediate reaction from the party leadership. Jamaat-e Islami has been banned from taking part in elections since 2013, after the Election Commission canceled its registration, a decision upheld by the High Court, which ruled that the party’s charter violated the constitution by opposing secularism.

Bangladesh’s Law Affairs Adviser Asif Nazrul said that Hasina’s ban was politically motivated and not based on ideology.

Mirza Fakhrul Islam Alamgir, secretary-general of the Bangladesh Nationalist Party led by former Prime Minister Khaleda Zia, Hasina’s rival, also had blamed Hasina’s government for the ban that he said was meant to divert attention from the violence in which security officials were accused of using excessive force and causing deaths among protesters.

The Yunus-led government has been struggling to restore political stability and order as police forces and other government sectors are demoralized after attacks by protesters. Compounding the crisis was a devastating flash flood that ravaged the country’s eastern and other regions, killing at least 27 people.

Under Hasina, who was criticized as an authoritarian, thousands of opposition leaders and activists were arrested before the January election that returned her to power for the fourth consecutive term. Human rights groups blamed her for using security forces and courts to suppress the opposition, the charge she denies.

Jamaat-e-Islami was founded during the British colonial rule in 1941 by a controversial Islamist scholar and campaigned against the creation of Bangladesh as an independent state during the war of independence from Pakistan in 1971.

In 2013, a mass uprising in Dhaka led by youth groups, civil society organizations and secular political parties called for the execution of the party leadership for their role in 1971 war crimes.

Most of the senior leaders were hanged or jailed since 2013 after they were convicted of crimes against humanity including killings, abductions and rapes in 1971. The party had formed militia groups to help the Pakistani military during the nine-month war. Bangladesh won independence on Dec. 16, 1971, with the help of neighboring India.

Bangladesh says 3 million people died, 200,000 women were raped and nearly 1 million people fled to India during the war.

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Mirroring Change: Literature and Social Transformation

International Seminar

3rd & 4th October 2024

Organized by

Research and Cultural Forum (RCF)

Department of English

Pondicherry University

Puducherry-605014

Host Department : The Department of English at Pondicherry University has been an important educational destination for research scholars and students, ever since it commenced functioning in 1986. Over the years, the department has produced innumerable PhD and M. Phil scholars, in addition to a large number of postgraduate students. The faculty of the department with their different specializations and academic interests are at the forefront of innovative teaching and advanced research varying from contemporary literary, cultural and language studies to theoretical explorations. The department also runs a Post Graduate Diploma in Professional Communication in English, an add-on program, in much demand among students and employees.

Furthermore, the department has also sought to enhance the language and communication skills of students from across the University through Functional

English and other communication-oriented courses. Another hallmark of the department is the Research and Cultural Forum (RCF) which acts as an avenue for scholars and students to showcase their research work and creative abilities. The department has also been at the forefront of organizing seminars, workshops and faculty development programs.

About Research and Cultural Forum (RCF):

Conceived thirty-five years ago as Research and Journal Alert Forum (RJAF) at the Department of English, Pondicherry University, RCF is a platform for research scholars and students of the department to discuss their research findings in various areas related to literature and culture and also present their creative talents. Run exclusively by the research scholars of the department, under the guidance of the faculty members and the support of MA students the forum hosts invited talks, workshops and interactive sessions by experts of national and international repute in the emerging areas of English Studies. The forum was recently renamed Research and Cultural Forum to integrate the department's research and cultural outputs. Now, it proudly undertakes the mission of bringing together and highlighting the role of literature in social transformation through this two-day International Seminar.

About the Seminar:

A Two-Day International Seminar has been planned by the Department of English on the 3rd & 4th of October 2024, with the focus area “Mirroring Change: Literature and Social Transformation”.

Literature has been able to predict, analyze, and critique social, economic and political change for a long time. This, in turn, has contributed to understanding social and political transformation through a medium that has been conventionally seen to be largely imaginative and fictional. While Orwell’s cautionary tale, 1984 predicted the effects of totalitarian regimes and surveillance, Harriet Beecher’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin “helped lay the groundwork for the American Civil War” (Kaufman, 2006: 18). If Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath brought into full view the travails of America during the Great Depression, Munshi Premchand’s Godaan brutally exposed poverty and the evils of the zamindari system in India. Literature has thus been constantly in sync with the changing silhouettes of society.

The conference aims to explore how literature has closely interacted with and mirrored the intricate matrix of the social and political milieu. This interaction has resulted in innumerable texts that have reflected these significant changes and helped us understand an ever-changing world. The wide gamut of social, political, economic, cultural, sociological and anthropological change has prompted the writer to ask questions, show up the mirror and sometimes even offer prescriptions for ills, thus making literature a vehicle for social transformation.  The conference aims to investigate and explore the significant role that literature has played in reflecting these changes, therefore acting as truth-seeker, sentinel, chronicler, and critic, all rolled into one.   

The conference aims to explore the interchange between literature and social transformation across varied arenas and can include, but is not restricted, to the following areas:

•           Political upheaval and social movements

•           Caste, class and hierarchy

•           Reigns, regimes and democracy

•           Marxism and literature

•           Changing dimensions of gender

•           Queer narratives

•           Geographies, borders and migration

•           Indigenous literatures

•           Anthropocene, Ecocriticism and Ecofeminism 

•           Dalit literature and social justice

•           Technology and literature

•           Popular culture and subcultures

•           Medical imperialism and illness narratives

Registration Fee:

Faculty Members:      Rs. 2000

Research Scholars:     Rs. 1000

PG Students:               Rs. 500

Co-authors are required to pay individually.

UG students (participation only): Rs 200

Abstracts can be uploaded through the Google form link

below on or before 30th August 2024.

Registration Link: https://forms.gle/CA78DHY86yfQtzhW9

Your queries may be addressed to rcfseminar202 4 @gmail.com

Important Dates:

Last date for sending abstracts: 30th August 2024

Confirmation of acceptance will be communicated by: 2nd September 2024

Complete papers are to be sent by: 27th September 2024 

Travel and Accommodation:

We hope that you will be able to take care of your travel and accommodation. However, accommodation will be arranged for outstation paper presenters if intimated in advance.

Working lunch and local hospitality will be provided.

Chief Patron :

Prof. K.Tharanikkarasu, Honourable Vice-Chancellor (i/c), Pondicherry University

Prof. Clement S Lourdes, Director, Culture  & Cultural Relations

Prof. Rajneesh Bhutani, Registrar (i/c)

Prof. D. Lazar, Finance Officer (i/c)

Chairperson : Prof. Clement S Lourdes, Dean, School of Humanities

Convener : Dr. T Marx, Prof & Head, Department of English

Faculty Coordinator: Dr. Harpreet Kaur Vohra, Associate Professor

Coordinators: Drishya K, Steward C.

Members:     

                        Prof. Binu Zachariah

                        Prof. K. Reshmi

                        Prof. Lakhimai Mili

Dr. Aiswarya S. Babu

                        Dr. Vidya Sarveswaran

Dr. S. Visaka Devi

Address for Communication:

Steward  C.        

Research Scholars                                                     

Department of English                                              

Pondicherry University                                             

Puducherry-605014                                                   

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