is it bad to put pictures in a research paper

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Using Images and Non-Textual Materials in Presentations, Papers, Theses, and Dissertations

• Documenting and Citing Images
• Finding Images - Select Sources

Documenting and Citing Images/Photographs and Their Sources

Please note that this is advice on best practices and considerations in documenting and citing images and non-print materials. It does not represent legal advice on obtaining permissions.

Generally, images copied from other sources should not be used without permissions in publications or for commercial purposes. Many American academic institutions require graduate students to archive their finished and approved theses/dissertations in institutional electronic repositories and/or institutional libraries and repositories, and/or to post them on Proquest's theses database. Unpublished theses and dissertations are a form of scholarly dissemination. Someone else's images, like someone else's ideas, words or music, should be used with critical commentary, and need to be identified and cited. If a thesis/dissertation is revised for publication,  waivers or permissions from the copyright holder(s) of the images and non-textual materials must be obtained. Best practices also apply to materials found on the internet and on social media, and, properly speaking, require identification, citation, and clearance of permissions, as relevant.

Use the following elements when identifying and citing an image, depending on the information you have available . It is your responsibility to do due diligence and document as much as possible about the image you are using:

• Artist's/creator's name, if relevant;
• Title of the work/image, if known, or description;
• Ownership information (such as a person, estate, museum, library collection) and source of image;
• Material, if known, particularly for art works;
• Dimensions of the work, if known.

The Chicago Manual of Style online can be searched for norms on appropriate ways to caption illustrations, capitalize titles of visual works, or cite print materials that contain images.

Including images/photographs in a bibliography:

Best practice is to not include images within a bibliography of works cited. It is common, instead, to create a separate list of images (or figures) and their source, such as photographer (even if it's you) or collection. It may be useful to also include location, e.g., museum, geographic reference, address, etc.

Examples of Documenting Images

The image below is scanned from a published book. It can be used in a critical context within a presentation, classroom session, or  paper/thesis, as follows:

[ Figure 1. This photograph from 1990 shows the Monument against Fascism designed by Jochen Gerz and Esther Shalev-Gerz, Hamburg, 1986-1993. Image from James Young, ed.,  Art of Memory: Holocaust Memorials in History (New York: Prestel, 1994), 70]

If you need to use this image in a published work, you will have to seek permission. For example, the book from which this image was scanned should have a section on photo credits which would help you identify the person/archive holding this image.

The image below was found through Google Images and downloaded from the internet. It can be used in a critical context within a presentation,  classroom session, or paper/thesis, as follows:

[Figure 2. This image shows the interior of Bibliotheca Alexandrina designed by the Norwegian architecture firm Snøhetta in 2001. Image downloaded from https://mgkhs.com/gallery/alexandria in March 2016.]

If you want to use this image in a published work, you will have to do your best to track down its source to request permission to use. The web site or social media site where you found the image may not be an appropriate source, since it is common for people to repost images without attribution. Just because "everyone does it" does not mean that you should be using such materials without attribution or documentation. In this specific example, you may need to write to the photographer or to the architecture firm. If you have done due diligence and were unable to find the source, or have not received a response, you may be able to use an image found on the internet with appropriate documentation in a publication.

The image below was downloaded from a digitized historic collection of photographs held by an institutional archive. It can be used in a critical context within a presentation,  classroom session, or paper/thesis, as follows:

[Figure 3. In the 1920s the urban landscape of Los Angeles started to change, as various developers began building multi-family apartment houses in sections previously zoned for single family dwellings. Seen in this photograph by Dick Whittington is the Warrington apartment building, which was completed in 1928, surrounded by older single family structures. Downloaded from the USC Digital Library in February 2016]

I f you plan to use this photograph in a publication, seek permission from the library/institution from whose digital archive you downloaded the image. Contact information is usually found in the record for the image.

The image below was taken by the author. It can be used in a critical context within a presentation, classroom session , paper/thesis, or a publication* as follows:

[Figure 4. Genex Tower, also known as West City Gate, is a residential tower located in New Belgrade. This example of late 20th century brutalist-style architecture was designed in 1977 by Mihajlo Mitrović. Photographed by the author in 2013.]

*Please note, if you re-photographed someone else's photograph or a work of art, or if you re-photographed a published image, you may not be able to publish your photograph without first seeking permission or credit for its content.  If you have done due diligence and were unable to find the source or have not received a response, you may be able to use your image with appropriate documentation.

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How to include pictures in a research paper

It is often said that a picture can speak more than a thousand words. In all kinds of research papers, pictures are essential in adding to the richness of the literature and analysis because of the valuable insight they can offer. For example, pictures of measured data from statistical applications are very important additions to the “Data presentation and analysis” chapter or section of any research paper.

This is because they help to complement verbal discussions or analysis by offering a visual presentation of the statistical technique used to measure the variables of interest. However, where the researcher is not the originator of such pictures, it is very important to cite the source of the picture according to the prescribed format. In the case of statistical applications mentioned above, for example, be sure to disclose which application generated the picture or printout as well as the version of such an application (e.g., SPSS version 27).   

What is a research paper?

A research paper is a form of academic writing which involves formally investigating a field of knowledge or topic of interest in order to add to the existing stock of knowledge in that field and/or solve a particular problem. Educational research is formal because it is not based on the subjective discretions of the researcher but on an accepted and objective standard such as the scientific method of inquiry. Research papers can be of different types. These include term papers, seminar presentations, undergraduate projects, post-graduate thesis or dissertations, conference/workshop papers, and journal entries, among others.

Though these highlighted papers and others can be structured in diverse ways, conducting research in this context basically requires that the researcher identifies a problem or area of interest; formulates research questions and/or hypothesis; reviews the existing literature in the field; collects, measures and analyzes relevant data; discusses the findings; makes conclusions and recommendations based on the findings and then suggests possible directions for future research.

Some things to consider before including pictures in a research paper

As noted above, pictures can complement words to make a research paper richer in terms of providing more insight. However, the researcher must ensure that such pictures are optimally included to generate the desired effects. To this end, some of the tips below can help.

Ensure the picture adds value to your research paper

Pictures may be a necessary aspect of some research papers but this does not imply that they should not be selected meticulously and meritoriously. The researcher must critically evaluate all pictures he or she intends to include in their paper and select only the most relevant, i.e., those that will help illuminate verbal discussions/analysis and consequently deepen the understanding of readers.   

Proper labeling and citation

Research papers are formal documents with rules on how each of them should be written, structured, or formatted. Therefore, ensure that your pictures are labeled according to the rules provided by whoever the paper is meant for (such as a university department or a print journal). The rules are usually determined by Style Guides like the Modern Language Association (MLA), the American Psychological Association, etc. Properly citing the sources of any picture you have borrowed is necessary to enable you avoid plagiarism.

Pictures should be suitably located

After toiling hard to gather the pictures needed for his or her research, the researcher should ensure that the selected pictures are appropriately inserted into the desired areas of the paper. In some social science projects and theses, for example, a tabular presentation of the data used for the research is located on the first page of the fourth chapter titled “Data presentation and analysis.”

Sometimes the researcher may have several pictures that cannot all be accommodated in the main body of a project or thesis/dissertation. In such instances, it will be appropriate to attach such pictures in the “Appendices” section at the end of the paper.

Carry the images along

The pictures do not serve as mere decorations but have been selected to help provide more insight and thus enrich the research paper. To this end, the researcher should ensure that the pictures are properly integrated into the verbal discussions or analysis in the paper.  For example, “Figure 1.0 is a graphical representation of all the differenced variables in the time series.” etc.

Citing pictures in a research paper

There are many kinds of pictures as well as picture sources and they can also be cited in a variety of ways. For simplicity, the examples in this article will focus entirely on how to cite digital (internet) pictures.

Format: Image Creator’s Last Name, First Name. “Image Title.”  Website Name , Day Month Year Published, URL.  

Example: Jones, Daniel. “The Hope Creek nuclear plant.” LearnersHub ,  9 November 2017, www.learnershub.net/2017/09/11/nuclear-technology-explained.html.

Chicago style

Format: Last Name, First Name. M [initials]. “Title.” Digital image. Website Title. Month Date, Year published. Accessed Month Date, Year. URL.

If the picture has no title, then a description can be used instead.

Date Accessed should only be included if the publication date is unavailable.

Example: Jones, Daniel R. “The Hope Creek nuclear plant.”Digital image. LearnersHub ,  Accessed 9 November 2017. www.learnershub.net.

Format: Author’s last name. First initial. (Publication or creation date). Title of image [Type of image]. Name of publisher. Museum or university. URL.

Example: Jones,  R. 2017.   The Hope Creek nuclear plant .[Photo]. National Science Museum. https//:www.nationalsciencemsuem.org/nuclearscience/2017/11/the-hope-creek-nuclear-plant.jpg.

Pictures of all kinds (including tables, charts, graphs, figures, photographs, etc) are useful components in a research paper. This is because of the insight they can bring by complementing verbal discussions and analysis. However, pictures should not be included in a research paper arbitrarily but follow some guidelines such as those presented above.

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Using Images in Publications

Many scholarly publications are enhanced with images, ranging from reproductions of fine art to graphs showing the results of scientific research. Including images in books and articles can complement the text, visually demonstrate the author's analysis, and engage the reader. Using images in publications, however, raises copyright issues, which can be complex, time-consuming, and expensive. To help authors navigate this process, publishers often provide specific guidance, including what rights must be requested, acceptable file formats, image resolution, etc. See Requesting 3rd party Permissions  from Oxford Journals or Image Guidelines from Johns Hopkins University Press as examples. 

The primary issues that you need to aware of when incorporating images in your publication are: 

The right to publish a copyrighted image is controlled by the copyright owner, so each copyrighted image that you use must have permission or fall within an exception to the general copyright statue, such as public domain, fair use, or open access. Copyright permission fees are sometimes waived or reduced for scholarly publications; if not, however, they can be quite expensive as well as time-consuming to obtain. We recommend that you begin the permissions process early to avoid any last-minute complications that may delay publication of your work. In addition to copyright permission, some museums and other providers of images charge a fee for the production or use of a digital image from their collections, even if the underlying work is in the public domain. Like permissions fees, use fees are sometimes waived or reduced for scholarly publications.

High resolution images

Publishers will require a high resolution image for publication (usually at least 300 ppi). These may come from museums, archives, other collections, your own work, or suppliers of stock photos. There may be a fee assessed for use, the amount of which can vary significantly depending on who is supplying the image and how you are using it.

Printing costs

The cost of printing images can be substantial for the publisher, so be sure to discuss with your editor how many images they will publish, whether they will be in color, and whether a subvention will be required if the manuscript contains a large number of images.

Privacy and publicity rights

If you have a photograph with people in it, there may be privacy or publicity rights that need to be addressed.

• Susan Bielstein,  Copyright Clearance: A Publisher's Perspective  (2005) (article begins on page 19)
• Susan Bielstein,  Permissions, A Survival Guide: Blunt Talk about Art as Intellectual Property  (2006) (ebook - Georgetown NetID required for off-campus access)
• Lois Farfel Stark, Obtaining Image Permissions for Your Book: An Author’s Perspective (2018)

Copyright Principles

Public domain.

If you can find a usable image in a book or journal article published before 1927, it will be in the public domain , and therefore free of any copyright restrictions. Certain images published between 1927 and 1989 may also be in the public domain, depending on if they were published with a copyright notice and if the copyright was renewed. For more information, use this public domain chart or contact [email protected] .

Works of the United States government are also in the public domain and may be used freely.

Some museums, libraries, and archives make public domain images freely available with few or no restrictions. Read more in the Finding Images  section.

Open Access / Creative Commons

Wikimedia Commons has a large collection of images that are licensed using the Creative Commons licensing system . Restrictions, if any, are listed with the image. It is important to recognize that if you use Wikimedia, you are relying on copyright information provided by the person uploading the image. You should review the copyright information carefully to be sure it appears to be accurate.

Many of the licenses in Wikimedia permit noncommercial uses only. The definition of noncommercial for purposes of the CC BY-NC license is, “NonCommercial means not primarily intended for or directed towards commercial advantage or monetary compensation.” Creative Commons provides some further guidance on how to  interpret  the NC license. 

Under certain circumstances, publishers may be comfortable with relying on fair use when publishing images accompanying scholarly works.

The guidelines in the College Art Association’s Code of Best Practices in Fair Use for the Visual Arts set out the fair use arguments for using art for educational purposes: 

PRINCIPLE In their analytic writing about art, scholars and other writers (and, by extension, their publishers) may invoke fair use to quote, excerpt, or reproduce copyrighted works, subject to certain limitations:

Limitations

• The writer’s use of the work, whether in part or in whole, should be justified by the analytic objective, and the user should be prepared to articulate that justification.
• The writer’s analytic objective should predominate over that of merely representing the work or works used.
• The amount and kind of material used and (where images are concerned) the size and resolution of the published reproduction should not exceed that appropriate to the analytic objective.
• Justifications for use and the amount used should be considered especially carefully in connection with digital-format reproductions of born-digital works, where there is a heightened risk that reproductions may function as substitutes for the originals.
• Reproductions of works should represent the original works as accurately as can be achieved under the circumstances.
• The writing should provide attribution of the original work as is customary in the field, to the extent possible.

Your own work

If you have your own high resolution photograph, you may use it freely since you own the copyright in your photograph. If, however, your photograph is of a copyrighted work of art, permission of the artist will be required unless it is a fair use . Note that many museums do not allow photography of works in their collections, so obtaining your own image of a work of art may not be an option. While architectural works are subject to copyright protection, photographs of publicly viewable buildings may be used. 17 U.S.C. § 120(a) .

If your image does not fall into any of the above categories, you will need to request permission from the copyright holder for use of the image. You may be able to obtain permission from one of the sites listed in the next section, or you may need to request permission from the artists or their representatives. The Artists Rights Society represents the intellectual property rights interests of visual artists and their estates worldwide and covers works in private collections as well as museums and galleries. ARS has a request form for permissions requests. Note that ARS handles permission requests only and does not supply images of the works.

For more general information on requesting permission, visit our Requesting Permission page.

Finding Images

Museums, libraries, and archives.

Some museums, libraries, and archives have collections of public domain images available for use in scholarly publications. The content of the collections and the permitted uses vary among institutions. Many do not allow images to be used as cover art since that is usually considered to be a commercial use, and some limit use to print publications. Below is a list of libraries and museums that make works available with few or no restrictions. 

• British Library  - The British Library’s collection on flickr allows access to millions of public domain images from the Library's collections. Higher quality images, if required, are available for purchase through the British Library. For more information, visit the Library's Images Online page.  
• J. Paul Getty Museum  - The Getty makes available, without charge, all available digital images to which the Getty holds the rights or that are in the public domain to be used for any purpose. More information about the content of the collections is available on their  Open Content Program  page.
• Library of Congress - Prints and Photographs - This collection has over 1,200,000 digitized images from the Library's collections. Rights information is available for each image - look for the field marked "Rights Advisory." Many collections have no known restrictions on use. For further information about using the collection, read the Copyright and Other Restrictions That Apply to Publication/Distribution of Images . Information on restrictions on use by collection is also available.
• National Gallery of Art  - NGA Images is a repository of images  presumed to be in the public domain  from the collections of the National Gallery of Art. Users may download— free of charge and without seeking authorization from the Gallery— any image of a work in the Gallery’s collection that the Gallery believes is in the public domain and is free of other known restrictions.
• New York Public Library  - This collection contains more than 180,000 photographs, postcards, maps and other public-domain items from the library’s special collections in downloadable high-resolution files. High resolutions downloads are available with no permission required and no restrictions on use.
• Victoria & Albert Museum - These images of art from the collections of the V&A are available for academic publishing with some limitations (print runs up to 4,000 copies or 5 years online use). Read the full  terms and conditions  to see if your use qualifies.

Stock image sites

There are many companies that provide both a high quality image for publication and a license for publication. These sites usually have good selection of images, the images are high quality, and the search features are sophisticated. Licensing fees vary considerably and can be high, though you may be able to negotiate a discount for use in a scholarly publication.

For some of the sites listed below, the price will vary depending on which rights you need for publication: print/electronic, region of the world, number of languages, number of books, where the image will be placed (inside/cover), and size of the image. After entering that information, a license fee will display based on your use. The license fee is not automatically available for some images; for those, you will usually receive an email message after submitting your request. You should consult with your editor when selecting options to be sure you have selected the appropriate options for your book or article.

• Art Resource (license fee based on rights needed)
• Bridgeman Images (license fee based on rights needed)
• Getty Images (license fee based on rights needed)
• iStock (flat fee)
• Shutterstock (flat fee)

JSTOR Images Search

JSTOR Images Search (Georgetown NetID required for off-campus access) is a subscription database that includes some images specifically licensed for academic publishing. These images are identified with “IAP” (Images for Academic Publishing) under the thumbnail image in your search results. Details of the use, including size of print run and credit line, vary among IAP images. You can view these by clicking on the IAP icon under the thumbnail image. The Terms and Conditions agreement displays when you download the image. Most JSTOR images, however, are not in the IAP program and are not licensed for use in scholarly publishing. To use a non-IAP image in a book or article, you will usually need to request permission or go through a fee-based stock photo archive, often Art Resource, for a license. JSTOR provides contact information for permissions in the "Rights Notes" section of image information page.

You may also find usable images for publication on the sites listed on.

Additional options

• College Art Association's list of image sources
• Georgetown Library's Copyright and Multimedia: Images page
• Georgetown Library's Images LibGuide

Specific Uses

Cover images.

Images that appear on the cover of a book often require specific permission for that use and a higher fee.

Film frames

The Association of University Presses has this statement on fair use and film frames in their Permissions FAQ :

You may use frame enlargements and publicity stills (both from films and from television shows) when you can justify their inclusion in the work under fair use guidelines—for example, when it can be argued that the illustration serves as a quote from the filmic “text” to illustrate a point. Be conservative in selecting material—if the still or frame illuminates a point you are making or is specifically discussed, then the use may qualify as fair use. Where possible, limit the number of frames reprinted from any one film and from different films that represent the subject of your work. If your use is decorative, you must seek permission from the rightsholder to include it. When purchasing material from a photo agency, read the conditions stated on the agreement and on the back of the photo very carefully (particularly the fine print). In all cases, acknowledge the original copyright holder. For a more in-depth analysis of fair use as related to stills and frame enlargements, the fair use section of the Society for Cinema and Media Studies website offers a number of policy statements and disciplinary guidelines that may be useful.

If your use goes beyond fair use, or if your publisher has a more restrictive policy, you will need to get permission from the copyright owner. Most major film studios have a licensing division where you can submit a request –  MGM ,  Sony ,  Warner Brothers , Paramount Pictures ,   Universal , and Walt Disney Studios , for example. For smaller producers, you will need to contact them directly with your request.

Charts, graphs, and figures

There are differences among publishers with respect to what permissions they require for graphs, so a good first step is to consult with your editor on their policies. A few sample policies are:

• Princeton University Press - "Where a chart, graph, or table is being reproduced in a critical study of the work or to buttress an argument of the writer, no permission is needed. Data is not copyrightable. Unless there is a creative element to data depiction that is being reproduced without alteration, fair use can be asserted, with attribution."
• Harvard University Press - "Data is not protected by copyright. However, graphics like tables and charts are copyright protected if the data is organized or presented in a unique way or if the graphic provides interpretation of the data. If you plan to reprint a graphic from another source that is protected by copyright, please clear permission. If you plan to reprint existing tables and charts, adapt existing tables and charts, or create your own tables and charts that will not be subject to copyright protection, please refer to the following guidelines for credit: The standard way to credit tables and charts you are reprinting is: Source: Credit."
• Oxford University Press - "As a guide, you should always seek permission for:  . . . Pictures (paintings, drawings, charts, engravings, photographs, cartoons, and so on); Figures and maps; Tables."

There are permissions guidelines that many STM publishers use in setting policies for the reuse of images from their publications. The guidelines include gratis permission for the use of limited numbers of figures/tables/images from journal articles or books, though note that not all members have adopted policies exactly as written in the guidelines.

Many publishers who follow the STM guidelines, or who have similar policies, provide free permissions through the Copyright Clearance Center's Marketplace  so those requests are usually quick, easy, and free. The Marketplace system requires information about your publication and exactly what rights you are seeking. For charts, graphs, or figures that fall outside the guidelines, the license fees are often in the $20-$50 range, although that depends on many factors and could be higher or lower.

If you have questions about using images in a scholarly publication, please email [email protected] .

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• J Indian Prosthodont Soc
• v.22(2); Apr-Jun 2022

Images in scientific writing

Anand kumar vaidyanathan.

Editor in Chief, Journal of Indian Prosthodontic Society Professor, Department of Prosthodontics, Faculty of Dental Sciences, SRIHER(DU), Porur, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

Images provide a pictorial insight into the research when appropriately used. Images alter the initial perception of professional editors and reviewers while assessing the manuscript.[ 1 , 2 ] It is essential to display images that are more relevant and explanatory to the text with a precise legend that could make the readers understand better.

Scientific images, unlike conventional photography, are data that should be of high informational value. The authors should design the figures for a wider audience that focuses on vital data with a single type of visual contrast of either color, shape, or size.[ 2 , 3 ] This editorial message highlights the salient features for improving the quality of images that need to be considered before submitting the manuscript to a journal.

IMAGE RESOLUTION

Image resolution is the number of pixels displayed per inch (dpi) of the image, and higher pixels provide better resolution.[ 4 ] A minimal resolution of 300 dpi is essential for submission in a scientific journal [ Figure 1 ]. Alteration of the low-pixel images as per the journal's requirements leads to lured, soft images reducing the resolution and quality. Increasing the resolution of an image decreases the image size to compensate for the number of pixels. For example, if an image is 10” × 5” at 300 dpi, it would modify to 8” × 3” at 600 dpi. At 300 dpi, the image would fill the entire page with a good, sharp image, whereas at 600 dpi, the image size would be small, but the quality of images will be very high.[ 4 ] Photo editors potentially decrease the quality of the image: hence, it is better to capture an image at high resolution.

An image modified to 300 dpi resolution with Photo Editor software

TYPES OF IMAGE FORMATS

The quality of images depends on the type of format it is stored. The Joint Photographic Experts Group[ 5 , 6 ] (.jpg., jpeg) has the advantage of storing the file in small size; however, the compression distorts the image details during transfer, leading to a pixelated image. These files are easy to upload due to their small storage size. Tagged Image File Format[ 5 , 6 ] (.tif, tiff) is an uncompressed image file type that helps in retaining detailed and high-resolution image data even after multiple transfers of the file. The “tiff” images are versatile in the color scheme that would suit the requirement of a publication. However, the file size is larger and requires more space to upload. Portable Network Graphics[ 5 , 6 ] (.png) can be compressed without distortion of data. It is often used for editing image over image or text over an image. However, it does not support all color schemes. It can be used for saving line diagrams, and the file size can be small which eases the upload. The device-independent bitmap[ 5 , 6 ] and bitmap (.bmp) files are raster graphics that store two-dimensional images such as charts that exactly match the original source. However, the file size would be large and can be compressed using programs such as zip. Encapsulated PostScript[ 5 , 6 ] (.eps) is a graphic file in vector format. It is especially a master image file that can be edited and scaled to infinity without loss of resolution. It has been replaced by adobe illustrator and Portable Document Format (.pdf). The RAW image files[ 7 ] (.raw., cr2., nef., orf., srz) are raw digital negative, comprising uncompressed and unprocessed image data. The image format is usually captured by the camera sensor, and later requires software to obtain the desired output. Although the image is of high resolution, it needs specific software to read the format and requires high storage space.

TYPE OF IMAGES

The types of images that are commonly included in a dental journal are photographs, charts, microscopic images, and radiographs.

A photographic image used in dental journals should accurately represent the color perceived by the eyes during dental/facial examination.[ 8 ] A digital single-lens reflex camera equipped with a macro lens (85–105 mm) and an external ring flash mounted in front of the lens is required for high-quality intraoral macrophotography.[ 9 , 10 ] The image should be captured close to the region of interest, avoiding the undesirable anatomical structures with the anti-fog mirrors. The camera is set in the manual mode for an intraoral photograph, with an aperture of f/20-22 to f/32, a shutter speed of 1/125–200, ISO 100–200, and magnification of 1:2.[ 9 ] White balance is accurately adjusted based on the neutral color of the environment so that the color is represented in its natural form depending on the light source. The white balance can be preset as sunlight, incandescent, fluorescent, etc., and can also be set based on the color temperature in kelvin. The color temperature that varies between 5500 and 6500 K gives an accurate representation of natural color to help in differentiating between healthy and diseased sites.[ 11 ] However, if the camera stores the image in RAW format, the white balance can be adjusted in postprocessing software.[ 12 ] An extraoral picture should be taken with a black background or contrast background.[ 13 ] Although most cameras prefer to store the image in jpeg format, it is preferable to store the images in the uncompressed and editable RAW format in a separate folder that can be used later to modify according to journal requirements. It is also preferable to use tiff format compared to jpeg after the final modification.

Grafts, charts, or line diagrams are vector images that are preferable to be stored in the png/tiff/pdf formats and if required to convert to jpeg format as per journal requirement.[ 14 , 15 ] This would ensure high resolution of the primary image during storage that can be modified when required without loss in image quality.[ 15 ] The vector images do not lose their resolution on scaling or resizing the image, however, an appropriate graphic file format such as png/tiff should be chosen. “.png” files improve the quality of graphics and are especially used while uploading to a website. Screenshots should be avoided as they may reduce the resolution of the images. The image shows saving the chart in a template (.crtx extensions) [ Figure 2 ]. The chart can also be saved as an Excel file to enable editing of data later. The charts during submission for publication should be saved as an image file in the png/tiff/pdf formats.

Chart template in .crtx extension format

Microscopic images used in publications are magnified images of an object and hence an appropriate scale of magnification is essential to satisfy the output of the research.[ 16 , 17 ] The scale bar is necessary for every image and should be visible in the corner of an image.[ 16 , 17 ] The author should make sure that the bar is maintained in the same position on all the images or follows the journal guidelines. The use of appropriate colorblind safe colors to represent the microscopical data is essential.[ 18 ] Although the image could be saved in gray or color scales, the author should perform a grayscale visibility test to ensure that the black-and-white print of color images also represents the same color variation that is visible in the color micrograph. When representing a single color, a grayscale image would be appropriate for publication. Figure 3a shows a blurred scale bar and the image due to storage of the microscopic image in jpeg format and resaving it multiple times leading to loss of data, whereas Figure 3b shows the clarity of image stored as tiff.

Scanning electron microscope image: (a) blurred image in .jpeg format after multiple formats, (b) clarity of image in .tiff format

Radiographs are an integral part of dental treatment and should be saved in the tiff, adobe Photoshop, or Electronic Software Download to retain the highest resolution that does not lose any details.[ 19 , 20 ] Appropriate contrast, wide dynamic range, spatial resolution, noise reduction, and avoidance of artifact are important components of the image quality of radiographs.[ 20 ]

LEGENDS FOR FIGURES

Legends are an accurate representation of either the methodology or the results. The figure legends should be a comprehensive but detailed representation of the image. The title of the figure should be in an inactive voice which can either be a clear description of the methodology or declarative of the result from the image in a comprehensive way.[ 21 , 22 ] For example, a preoperative radiograph of a maxillary tooth could be better written as a preoperative intraoral periapical radiograph of the right maxillary first molar. Similar to the content of the main text, the figure should also be in the past tense. The use of symbols, colors, and scale bars should be explained in the legend. The sublegends should also be labeled as 1a and 1b to specify the difference between the images, for example, Figure 1 : scanning electron microscopy of implant surface shows (a) adherence of microbes in the coronal portion at ×100 and (b) microbial colonization in the middle third at ×500.

COPYRIGHT/RIGHT TO USE FIGURE

If any part of the figure is reproduced from published data, prior permission from the authors and the concerned journal/publisher is mandatory and should be referenced. Citing the source without prior permission will lead to outright rejection of the manuscript.

An author should follow the journal guidelines for images that are more specific and vary between journals [ Table 1 ]. The format of images given in the author guidelines in a journal should be used for uploading images.

Preferred image format in scientific writing

• Translation

Including High-quality Images in your scientific paper for submission and acceptance

By charlesworth author services.

• Charlesworth Author Services
• 22 March, 2022

The importance of images in scientific papers

• For expression/communication : Carefully crafted language, although necessary and helpful, will take you only so far in describing data, lab procedures or surgical technique. Including carefully selected, high-quality images can elegantly and quickly show data, demonstrate a technique or make a point clear. Visually displaying what you see and are trying to convey can go a long way in ensuring that a much more intimate learning experience is made available to the reader. Excellent images remove distance and potential language differences in the presentation of concepts and data. The result: a near-immediate transmission of knowledge between you and your audience . 
• F or submission/acceptance : Additionally, excellent images strengthen the visual appeal of manuscripts. Between equally good submissions, the one with better images will be accepted over the one without them. The converse is (painfully) true as well: poor-quality images will almost always doom otherwise solid submissions to rejection .

Types of scientific papers that are ideal for images

While nearly any type of scientific paper can benefit from excellent images and illustrations, some fields require them. These fields are:

• Natural sciences
• Astronomical sciences

Perhaps the most visually dependent of all fields is medicine. 

Types of media used in scientific papers

At every turn—diagnostic imaging, anatomy, intraoperative visualisation, diagnostic pathology, post-operative results—high-quality images are essential. Although photography has largely superseded illustrations, combining photographs with side-by-side drawings can be particularly educational . No matter how clean and clear a photograph of a surgical field may be, a good intraoperative drawing with labels can help students readily appreciate and identify anatomical structures.

In addition to still images,  videos have become integral to publications which publish research on surgical techniques . Readers can experience not only visualisation of the operative field, but also the technique and skillset of the author team. Adding motion and sound in real time creates an immersive learning experience far beyond what even excellent static images can deliver. 

Below is an example of how anatomical drawings and dissections can help visualise surgical approaches.

Drawings and anatomical dissections showing various surgical approaches to the sphenoid sinus for brain surgery. Figure 8.17 from Rhoton AL Jr.: The sellar region. Neurosurgery 53:363-402, 2003 (suppl).

Tips for including high-quality images in scientific papers

Here are some simple but often overlooked tips to help you to provide and include excellent images while preparing your paper:

• Refer to example images from other articles and in other journals to gain a sense of what constitutes excellent images. Learn from others how they use and place visual elements in their papers.
• Use correct focus .
• Have sufficient brightness and exposure .
• Ensure images are colour correct .
• Include close-up images to provide needed detail.
• For long-term preoperative and postoperative comparisons, have appropriate, consistent images.
• Make sure files for digital images are large enough to reproduce large physical images.
• Follow the prospective journal’s Information for Authors and submit figures in accepted digital formats (e.g., .tiff, .jpeg, .pdf, .png, etc.).

The addition of high-quality visual elements to academic research papers can not only improve their visual appeal and presentation but also dramatically impact the delivery of data and results. Excellent images—and even videos—may soon become almost mandatory elements for many types of scientific papers . Learning essential photographic and digital graphic skills will also greatly enhance your chances of manuscript acceptance .

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Academic Writing Guides for Students

How To Use Pictures in Your Academic Writing

Pictures can add a lot to academic writing because they support the arguments made in the text. They offer readers another way to consider and process information and often create a vivid impression of concepts related to the work. Pictures can also help you convey important ideas or data in an efficient way so that your essay isn’t too long and drawn out! Because pictures vary widely in their meaning and purpose, it’s worth plotting them through different stages in your paper: what do you want to show? why does it matter? how is it connected to your argument?

The best place for an image is within sentences or paragraphs where you’re discussing relevant concepts. For example, let’s say I wanted to talk about “the interplay between observation and affect” (an abstract, vague concept). If I use a picture of someone observing something – like the moon or stars – then my reader can see that I’m talking about “observation.” A picture of someone holding their hand to their head (a common pose when feeling overwhelmed) could convey the idea of “affect.”

Pictures can also illustrate relationships between concepts. Let’s say we want to argue that we should shift our perspective on the symbiotic relationship between humans and nature: rather than treating this relationship as one where we exploit and consume natural resources (which has negative impacts for humans and non-humans), we might consider it more as a type of friendship. In this case, pictures of friends laughing together would be useful because we can see that “friendship” is a type of relationship. This specific example does not work because the concept of “friendship” is too broad and it is unclear how this type of relationship relates to nature or humans’ understanding of it.

The main drawback when using pictures in academic writing is determining when it is appropriate for your reader to make these visual comparisons themselves. If you’ve written a paragraph where you’re showing a variety of concepts, then readers may get confused if you use a picture with only one aspect within the text. For instance, I have not included any pictures of stars or moons in this post – if I were to add one at the end, my argument would lose focus and become muddled. In short: if you’re using a picture, you need to be reasonably sure your reader will see it in the same way as you do.

Pictures can also contribute to the design of your essay by creating consistency and establishing connections between your argument and other elements. For example, if I had included images within every paragraph, any readers could expect that they would always find some type of visual support for my paper’s claims; this expectation might make them more open to exploring new ideas towards the end. The overall look of the text ( the font choices , image size/placement etc.) can help set out your position within academia. This is why it is important to consider how pictures are positioned (and where they appear) throughout an entire assignment rather than just at the end.

Best of luck with your future writing!

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• How to cite an image in APA Style

How to Cite an Image in APA Style | Format & Examples

Published on November 5, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on December 1, 2023.

An APA image citation includes the creator’s name, the year, the image title and format (e.g. painting, photograph, map), and the location where you accessed or viewed the image.

When you include an image or photo in your text, as well as citing the source, you must also present it as a figure and include any copyright/permissions information .

You can create your citations automatically with Scribbr’s free APA citation generator.

Generate an APA citation

Table of contents

Citing images accessed online, citing images viewed in person, including images as figures, frequently asked questions about apa image citations.

For online images, include the name of the site you found it on, and a URL. Link directly to the image where possible, as it may be hard to locate from the other information given.

Missing information

It can often be hard to find accurate information about images accessed online. Try looking for alternate sources of an image, checking image sites like Flickr that provide reliable information on their images, or finding a different image in cases where the one you planned to use has no reliable information.

However, if you do need to cite an image with no author, date or title listed, there are ways around this.

For untitled images, include a description of the image, in square brackets, where the title would usually go. If there is no publication date, add “n.d.” in place of the date, and add the date that you accessed the image.

For images where the creator is unknown, you can use the title or description in the author position.

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If you viewed an image in person rather than online—for example in a museum or gallery, or in another text—the source information is different.

For images viewed in a museum or gallery, you include the name and location of the institution where you viewed the image.

Location information includes the city, state/province (abbreviated), and country, e.g. Sydney, NSW, Australia. Omit the state/province if not applicable.

Citations for images sourced from a print publication such as a book , journal , or magazine include information about the print source in which the image originally appeared:

When you include the image itself in your paper, it should be properly formatted as an APA figure , with a number, a descriptive title, and an entry in your list of figures if you have one.

The title of a figure should appear immediately above the image itself, and will vary according to the type of image cited. For example, an artwork is simply the work’s title.

A note below the figure may include further details regarding its authorship and medium, copyright/permissions information, additional explanatory notes, or other elements.

Note that any figures that you didn’t create yourself should appear both in your list of figures (if you have one) and on your reference page . Figures you create yourself only appear in the list of figures.

In most styles, the title page is used purely to provide information and doesn’t include any images. Ask your supervisor if you are allowed to include an image on the title page before doing so. If you do decide to include one, make sure to check whether you need permission from the creator of the image.

Include a note directly beneath the image acknowledging where it comes from, beginning with the word “ Note .” (italicized and followed by a period). Include a citation and copyright attribution . Don’t title, number, or label the image as a figure , since it doesn’t appear in your main text.

If you adapt or reproduce a table or figure from another source, you should include that source in your APA reference list . You should also include copyright information in the note for the table or figure, and include an APA in-text citation when you refer to it.

Tables and figures you created yourself, based on your own data, are not included in the reference list.

APA doesn’t require you to include a list of tables or a list of figures . However, it is advisable to do so if your text is long enough to feature a table of contents and it includes a lot of tables and/or figures .

A list of tables and list of figures appear (in that order) after your table of contents, and are presented in a similar way.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Caulfield, J. (2023, December 01). How to Cite an Image in APA Style | Format & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved August 29, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/apa-examples/image/

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Designing High-Quality Images for Research Papers and Theses: The Available Tools

Manuscripts express data collected from months or years of careful experimentation. However, raw data or narratives alone don’t make good journal articles. Data visualization tools and free drawing software enable scientists to explain their scientific story. By using tools to perfect scientific illustration, your manuscript can grab reviewers’ attention. More importantly, it will help your readers understand data quickly, increasing the likelihood of citing and sharing your research paper .

Why Image Quality Matters

  Journals have strict guidelines regarding figure/image quality (e.g. “dots per inch”/DPI or number of pixels per image). Editors and their staff will turn down manuscripts prior to review if the images are of insufficient quality. Furthermore, poor figure quality can leave a bad impression on readers and reviewers. So, when editing and creating scientific images, be sure to use scientific illustration software or drawing tools to make your data clear and understandable!

Tables can help communicate data quickly to readers, who are often short on time. For this reason, when you have a well-designed table, your paper can have a far greater impact. For this reason, your tables should have clear and descriptive titles, well-defined headings , aligned data entries in each cell, and clearly defined units for all data entries. Meanwhile, when designing figures, there are many tools available to researchers to create publication-ready images.

Related: Creating images for your research paper? Check out these resources and avoid image manipulation now!

Uses and Limitations of Common Tools

There is a myriad of tools available for scientists. Picking which one to work with depends on your computer literacy, budget, and desired outcomes.

R is a free statistics computing program that also facilitates graphics development. It works on a variety of operating systems. Furthermore, the default design choices for image rendering were made to generate publication-quality plots with ease. While it is free, it is not as user-friendly as subscription services, such as Prism, which allows for both data analysis and figure development.

ImageJ is a freely available software developed by the National Institutes of Health . In short, it is an image-processing program that allows users to edit, analyze, process, save, print, modify colors, and quantitate images . One of the more exciting features is its ability to generate stacks (a series of images) from videos or convert photos into videos. This is helpful for live cell imaging.

Inkspace is a quality vector graphics editor that is open sourced and provides flexible drawing tools . It has broad file format compatibility and a powerful text tool.

GIMP is a free image manipulation program that can be combined with plugins to enhance features. It requires greater computer literacy than most other image formatting tools.

Cytospace is an open source network for complex network analysis that helps users integrate, analyze, and visualize data. While it is free to use, it is not as user-friendly as Ingenuity Pathway Analysis, which allows for pathways to be designed and rendered artistically with great ease (for a fee, of course).

ImageMagick is another tool that can be used to read and write images in many commonly used formats (e.g., PNG, JPEG, FIG, TIFF, PDF, etc). For this reason, it can modify images in nearly any manner. It allows users to composite images, animate, manage color, decorate, draw, and delineate image features (e.g., edges of colors). Furthermore, it is compatible with multiple coding languages.

• While creating figures can be a fun process, it’s important to always do it correctly. First, check the required format for images prior to submitting. If you have to convert the image file, check to ensure that your DPI is still at least 300.
• Once ready to submit, carefully review figures for errors prior to publishing. One method of doing this is to print your figures in color and review them manually. This will help you spot oddities that may have otherwise been missed by an electronic review.
• When modifying your images for publication, never manipulate your images in a manner that is fraudulent. Western blots are often the most suspicious images available that will carefully be scrutinized by your reviewers.
• Finally, while a lot of data is helpful to have, be sure to reduce the presence of “chartjunk” – the unnecessary visual elements that distract the reader from what really matters…your data!

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How to cite images and graphs in your research paper

Table of Contents

If you are confused about whether you should include pictures, images, charts, and other non-textual elements in your research paper or not, I would suggest you must insert such elements in your research paper. Including non-textual elements like images and charts in the research paper helps extract a higher acceptance of your proposed theories.

An image or chart will make your research paper more attractive, interesting, explanatory, and understandable for the audience. In addition, when you cite an image or chart, it helps you describe your research and its parts with far more precision than simple, long paragraphs.

There are plenty of reasons why you should cite images in your research paper. However, most scholars and academicians avoid it altogether, losing the opportunity to make their research papers more interesting and garner higher readership.

Additionally, it has been observed that there are many misconceptions around the use or citation of images in research papers. For example, it is widely believed and practiced that using pictures or any graphics in the research papers will render it unprofessional or non-academic. However, in reality, no such legit rules or regulations prohibit citing images or any graphic elements in the research papers.

You will find it much easier once you know the appropriate way to cite images or non-textual elements in your research paper. But, it’s important to keep in mind some rules and regulations for using different non-textual elements in your research paper. You can easily upgrade your academic/ research writing skills by leveraging various guides in our repository.

In this guide, you will find clear explanations and guidelines that will teach you how to identify appropriate images and other non-textual elements and cite them in your research paper. So, cut the clutter; let’s start.

Importance of citing images in a research paper

Although it’s not mandatory to cite images in a research paper, however, if you choose to include them, it will help showcase your deep understanding of the research topic. It can even represent the clarity you carry for your research topic and help the audience navigate your paper easily.

There are several reasons why you must cite images in your research paper like:

(i) A better explanation for the various phenomenon

While writing your research paper, certain topics will be comparatively more complex than others. In such a scenario where you find out that words are not providing the necessary explanation, you can always switch to illustrating the process using images. For example, you can write paragraphs describing climate change and its associated factors and/or cite a single illustration to describe the complete process with its embedded factors.

(ii) To simplify examples

To create an impeccable research paper, you need to include evidence and examples supporting your argument for the research topic. Rather than always explaining the supporting evidence and examples through words, it will be better to depict them through images. For example, to demonstrate climate change's effects on a region, you can always showcase and cite the “before and after” images.

(iii) Easy Classification

If your research topic requires segregation into various sub-topics and further, you can easily group and classify them in the form of a classification tree or a chart. Providing such massive information in the format of a classification tree will save you a lot of words and present the information in a more straightforward and understandable form to your audience.

(iv) Acquire greater attention from the audience

Including images in your research paper, theses, and dissertations will help you garner the audience's greater attention. If you add or cite images in the paper, it will provide a better understanding and clarification of the topics covered in your research. Additionally, it will make your research paper visually attractive.

Types of Images that you can use or cite in your research paper

Using and citing images in a research paper as already explained can make your research paper more understanding and structured in appearance. For this, you can use photos, drawings, charts, graphs, infographics, etc. However, there are no mandatory regulations to use or cite images in a research paper, but there are some recommendations as per the journal style.

Before including any images in your research paper, you need to ensure that it fits the research topic and syncs with your writing style. As already mentioned, there are no strict regulations around the usage of images. However, you should make sure that it satisfies certain parameters like:

• Try using HD quality images for better picture clarity in both print and electronic formats
• It should not be copyrighted, and if it is, you must obtain the license to use it. In short cite the image properly by providing necessary credits to its owner
• The image should satisfy the context of the research topic

You can cite images in your research paper either at the end, in between the topics, or in a separate section for all the non-textual elements used in the paper. You can choose to insert images in between texts, but you need to provide the in-text citations for every image that has been used.

Additionally, you need to attach the name, description and image number so that your research paper stays structured. Moreover, you must cite or add the copyright details of the image if you borrow images from other platforms to avoid any copyright infringement.

Graphs and Charts

You can earn an advantage by providing better and simple explanations through graphs and charts rather than wordy descriptions. There are several reasons why you must cite or include graphs and charts in your research paper:

• To draw a comparison between two events, phenomena, or any two random parameters
• Illustration of statistics through charts and graphs are most significant in drawing audience attention towards your research topic
• Classification tree or pie charts goes best to show off the degree of influence of a specific event, or phenomenon in your research paper

With the usage of graphs and charts, you can answer several questions of your readers without them even questioning. With charts and graphs, you can provide an immense amount of information in a brief yet attractive manner to your readers, as these elements keep them interested in your research topic.

Providing these non-textual elements in your research paper increases its readability. Moreover, the graphs and charts will drive the reader’s attention compared to text-heavy paragraphs.

You can easily use the graphs or charts of some previously done research in your chosen domain, provided that you cite them appropriately, or else you can create your graphs through different tools like Canva, Excel, or MS PowerPoint. Additionally, you must provide supporting statements for the graphs and charts so that readers can understand the meaning of these illustrations easily.

Similarly, like pictures or images, you can choose one of the three possible methods of placement in your research paper, i.e., either after the text or on a different page right after the corresponding paragraph or inside the paragraph itself.

How to Cite Images and Graphs in a Research Paper?

Once you have decided the type of images you will be using in your paper, understand the rules of various journals for the fair usage of these elements. Using pictures or graphs as per these rules will help your reader navigate and understand your research paper easily. If you borrow or cite previously used pictures or images, you need to follow the correct procedure for that citation.

Usage or citation of pictures or graphs is not prohibited in any academic writing style, and it just differs from each other due to their respective formats.

Cite an Image/Graphs in APA (American Psychological Association) style

Most of the scientific works, society, and media-based research topics are presented in the APA style. It is usually followed by museums, exhibitions, galleries, libraries, etc. If you create your research paper in APA style and cite already used images or graphics, you need to provide complete information about the source.

In APA style, the list of the information that you must provide while citing an element is as follows:

• Owner of the image (artist, designer, photographer, etc.)
• Complete Date of the Image: Follow the simple DD/MM/YYYY to provide the details about the date of the image. If you have chosen a certain historical image, you can choose to provide the year only, as the exact date or month may be unknown
• Country or City where the Image was first published
• A Name or Title of the Image (Optional: Means If it is not available, you can skip it)
• Publisher Name: Organization, association, or the person to whom the image was first submitted

If you want to cite some images from the internet, try providing its source link rather than the name or webpage.

Format/Example of Image Citation:

Johanson, M. (Photographer). (2017, September, Vienna, Austria. Rescued bird. National gallery.

Cite an Image/Graphs in MLA (Modern Language Association) style

MLA style is again one of the most preferred styles worldwide for research paper publication. You can easily use or cite images in this style provided no rights of the image owner get violated. Additionally, the format or the information required for citation or usage is very brief yet precise.

In the MLA style, the following are the details that a used image or graph must carry:

• Name of the creator of the owner
• Title, Name, or the Description of the Image
• Website Or the Source were first published
• Contributors Name (if any)
• Version or Serial Number (if any)
• Publisher’s Details; at least Name must be provided
• Full Date (DD:MM: YYYY) of the first published Image
• Link to the original image

Auteur, Henry. “Abandoned gardens, Potawatomi, Ontario.” Historical Museum, Reproduction no. QW-YUJ78-1503141, 1989, www.flickr.com/pictures/item/609168336/

Final Words

It is easy to cite images in your research paper, and you should add different forms of non-textual elements in the paper. There are different rules for using or citing images in research papers depending on writing styles to ensure that your paper doesn’t fall for copyright infringement or the owner's rights get violated.

No matter which writing style you choose to write your paper, make sure that you provide all the details in the appropriate format. Once you have all the details and understanding of the format of usage or citation, feel free to use as many images that make your research paper intriguing and interesting enough.

If you still have doubts about how to use or cite images, join our SciSpace (Formerly Typeset) Community and post your questions there. Our experts will address your queries at the earliest. Explore the community to know what's buzzing and be a part of hot discussion topics in the academic domain.

Learn more about SciSpace's dedicated research solutions by heading to our product page. Our suite of products can simplify your research workflows so that you can focus more on what you do best: advance science.

With a best-in-class solution, you can handle everything from literature search and discovery to profile management, research writing, and formatting.

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4 Tips on How to Take Pictures Useful in Your Research

How do you ensure that you take pictures useful in your research? Are there ways by which you can maximize the use of your digital camera? Indeed there are important points to consider when taking pictures specifically for research purposes. Read the four tips below and avoid the regrets of post-field work.

Taking pictures once proved to be too costly both to hobbyists as well as beginning photographers who have difficulty ensuring that the pictures they take are worth the money they spend for film processing and photograph development in a commercial photo shop. That is during the age of the film-based cameras decades back. But with the popularity and greater resolution accorded by digital camera nowadays, this is not much of a concern as you can preview your shots either in your digital camera or your computer.

If you are a researcher or a college student working on a thesis, a certain degree of knowledge and skill in taking pictures must be had to get the most out of pictures taken in the field. At the very least, you should be able to apply the following tips in your pictures to make your output more technically oriented and effective in your presentation of results:

1. Think first of your intention in taking the photograph .

This can be made clearer by citing an example. Say, you want to discriminate a male from a female crab, or specifically the abdominal structure difference between the two. This, of course, will mean that you will have to turn the crab upside down (or dorsal side down) to reveal the abdominal structures and lay down two samples together to show differences before taking the shot.

2. Understand what f-stop means .

One of the important information you should have in taking pictures is understanding what an f-stop means. F-stop refers to the size of the aperture of lens that the camera will set automatically if you are using an automatic camera or can be adjusted manually if you use a camera with manual aperture adjustments. The greater the size of the lens aperture, the greater will be the amount of light that will enter the camera. This will mean fast shutter speed to make the proper exposure so that your picture will look fine.

Almost always, researchers want as much clarity and detail in their pictures. So the rule is, set the lens aperture to its smallest possible size as the camera will allow; of course, with proper exposure in mind. I find that I can achieve good results using a minimum f-stop of 8.0. Using an f-stop lower than this value will cause other parts of the photograph some blur. This is alright if your intention is to highlight a certain feature like the way I highlight the eyes of a goldfish below using Panasonic Lumix LX5, a camera with manual aperture setting.

For more useful tips on aperture setting, you may read my article in Knoji entitled “How to Take Close Up Pictures of Wild Life.”

3. Always take a picture relative to another object which you can use for size estimation .

This is an important aspect of taking photos for research purposes. This technique is especially useful if you are interested in morphometrics or quantitative analysis of form used in comparing or discriminating different species of animals.

Having the lower number in the scale at left facilitates reading the length from left to right which is a normal reading mode in most countries. The total length of this shrimp is 5.7 cm from tail tip to tip of the snout (excluding the whiskers of course).

However, I do not recommend the blue ruler that my student brought in the field during our exploratory trip of a mangrove area. It is better to use a transparent one so that the ruler gridlines will contrast better.

4. Take as many pictures as your SD card will allow .

Take as much picture as possible in the field on just a single point of interest so you will have choices of the best shot. To avoid missing out the important pictures and to allow you to take video shots at the same time, a 16GB memory card will be sufficient. Just make sure you have extra, charged and protected battery for your camera.

Bear this photography tips in mind to make the most of field trips required to fulfill the objectives of your research.

© 2013 May 14 P. A. Regoniel

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When submitting a scientific paper written using LaTeX, to a journal, which high-quality image format do you usually use?

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• 1 $\begingroup$ I always try to use PDF. But one time the journal, even using Latex, ask for TIFF file instead. $\endgroup$ –  Camps ♦ Commented Sep 10, 2021 at 12:45
• 1 $\begingroup$ Meta discussion relevant to this question: mattermodeling.meta.stackexchange.com/q/291/671 $\endgroup$ –  Anyon Commented Sep 11, 2021 at 16:27
• 2 $\begingroup$ @Vikki I believe they mean what image format is used for the embedded images $\endgroup$ –  Tyberius ♦ Commented Sep 12, 2021 at 2:43
• 2 $\begingroup$ @ChiKou Hm. If you submit a single PDF, isn't it your choice how you embed your images? Or do you submit pure text as a PDF with gaps for images submitted separately? The arXiv submission mentioned in the accepted answer has both a rasterized image on p. 9 and the vector graphic shown in that answer on p. 10. I suppose it's a matter of the image source and the Latex toolchain what the resulting PDF contains, and not up to the editor (except insofar as the editor may decide to (badly) rasterize the entire publication ). $\endgroup$ –  Peter - Reinstate Monica Commented Sep 12, 2021 at 10:57
• 2 $\begingroup$ Also, in order to print digitally on paper the publication must be rasterized in any case; the question is probably how well that is done (depending on the printing hardware and, again, the toolchain). $\endgroup$ –  Peter - Reinstate Monica Commented Sep 12, 2021 at 10:59

2 Answers 2

For scientific papers in matter modeling, I always use vector graphics (e.g. .eps , .pdf, or .svg , though the journals will not typically accept .svg format).

I stopped publishing in ACS journals (e.g. JCTC and JACS) after they turned one of my vector graphics into a pixelated raster , before publishing it. Even though it was 2015, and I'd been publishing papers with vector graphics in journals like JCP for many years already, they said they don't accept EPS or PDF files, when I was publishing this paper in JCTC. In Figure 2, you can see the difference between the published version (top) zoomed in as much as possible (and yet still pixelated) and the version on arXiv (bottom) which can be zoomed in much more, and still doesn't get pixelated ( click the image to see it larger ):

As Camps explained in his comment , they only accepted TIFF files at the time:

"Date: Tue, 9 Jun 2015 at 10:01 Subject: RE: FW: ct-2014-01066k Why Quantum Coherence Is Not Important in the FennaMatthewsOlsen Complex Dr. Dattani, Thank you for your message concerning this manuscript. We are currently exploring the use of vector graphics, but at this time we are unable to grant your request. If you wish to see if tif files submitted as explained below would improve the resolution of your figures, you may send new files directly to me by e-mail. Please advise. Thank you, Production Assistant American Chemical Society"

That was in response to an email in which I'd complained that the label for picoseconds in my original vector graphic (bottom of image below) had been pixelated by the journal when they converted it to a raster (top of image below), here is a screenshot of that email I sent:

Buttonwood made some very good points this comment , with which I completely agree. Vector images have searchable text whereas raster images typically do not. Furthermore the size of the image will be much smaller if you use a vector graphic instead of a raster: arXiv has a limit on the size of the files submitted, and I once had a submission that was at least 10x too big in file size to get through arXiv's submission portal, but when I converted the figures to PDF format, the entire paper's size was about 53kB.

• 5 $\begingroup$ Not only crispiness is a difference. Disregarding illustrations and the searchable text layer, possibly file volume of the .pdf using bitmap fonts may be larger than one using postscript fonts. $\endgroup$ –  Buttonwood Commented Sep 10, 2021 at 13:30
• 2 $\begingroup$ Although it is of course true that vector formats are preferrable for, well vector graphics , it is not true that they are better for all figures . Heatmaps generally require some kind of rasterization regardless. Tools that export to .eps typically do that under the hood, but often less than optimally. .png with a suitably optimised palette can be much more efficient, with negligible visual difference even in print. $\endgroup$ –  leftaroundabout Commented Sep 11, 2021 at 17:54
• 2 $\begingroup$ @leftaroundabout I think you should expand that into an answer, that presents .png as an alternative to my answer. I'd actually agree with it for some cases! $\endgroup$ –  Nike Dattani - No Free Time Commented Sep 11, 2021 at 19:26
• $\begingroup$ @leftaroundabout No working code with me for this one, but a colleague of mine was plotting heatmaps with gnuplot, exported as crisp .eps files. Since he knew 1) they would be print anyway on white paper, 2) only two thirds only would be non-zero intensity in the projection requiring a «tile» at all to plot the map, he used a conditional Boolean to leave many 0-grid pixels just undefined. Equally, only the top most surface of the heat map was plot instead an averaging layer approach previously used. Thus, with .eps only about 25% to 50% of the .png, the .pdf of the SI was small enough for ACS. $\endgroup$ –  Buttonwood Commented Sep 13, 2021 at 16:51
• $\begingroup$ It would be worth the archeology to check if, e.g., matplotlib (or your plotter of choice) equally knows such a «conditional tiling» to plot pixels only if they exceed a certain threshold. $\endgroup$ –  Buttonwood Commented Sep 13, 2021 at 16:53

Complementary to the answer given by Nike Dattani with focus on file format, I would like to draw your attention to how you present the content visually in photos, schemes and diagrams known as artwork .

Regardless of the file format eventually elected (where suitable, vector based like .(e)ps or .pdf), determine in advance the dimension of the illustration: Are you invited to design the outer/inner title of the issue of the journal, may you use color(s), will the illustration span over two columns, or are you constrained to the width of a single narrow column. This may be a guide to balance the content and detail it contains.

The blueprints by architects, datavisualizations in the newspapers, or work e.g., by Edward Tufte may be an inspiration to remove clutter and reorganization e.g., if the illustration is a photography. Beside inspiration by illustrations by your colleagues, well maintained scientific journals provide advice, too ( example IUCr ).

If the illustration isn't a photography, design it like a flag -- easy recognizable from distance (e.g., Chicago):

Keep It Simple. Use Meaningful Symbolism. Use 2 or 3 Basic Colors. (...) Be Distinctive or Be Related. (Credit to Good Flag, Bad Flag compiled by NAVA . I do not think their point 4 is relevant here.)

So if you plot data in a diagram, consider markers clearly distinctive by color, yet still distinctive by shape if the publication isn't transmitted in color passing a Xerox:

( image credit )

Note: If you start with a too large dimensions, the journal's request to scale the illustration to fit into a single column may render these markers difficult/impossible to discern (especially if a publisher converts them into pixel bitmaps).

The more discrete colors in the illustration, the more the potential lost of information when this is reproduced in grey scale:

Use freely accessible tools like ColorBrewer2 to probe color schemes safe enough to convey sequential/diverging, or qualitative data. You may toggle on/off options for greyscale, photocopy, color blindness.

Consider color blindness. There are much more men (and to lesser extent, women) prone to this, than you might think ( see examples ). Check your illustration in advance with tools like visicheck , or your image editor ( example GIMP ).

If your illustration is a 2D projection of 3D map where e.g., intensity of a property is color encoded, substitute default color schemes like «jet» by one like «viridis» (continous data):

or «blue-white-red» about divergent data by «bent-cool-warm»:

It is worth to invest some time and effort into this topic. The work by Kenneth Moreland ( a presentation ), or Kristen Thyng may guide you further. Often, such palettes are freely available for e.g., Python's mathplotlib , or gnuplot ; so, once set up well, it will work in the background for you.

It isn't easy to follow all these points at once equally well. Like any profession, it asks for training, curiosity, and testing.

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When to Use an Image in an Essay: What You Need to Know

by  Antony W

September 13, 2022

There’s a 98% chance that the essays you’ve written so far are pages of text alone. While plain text can make the work look dull, academic writing hardly ever requires you to use images, charts, and graphs in the essay. 

While that doesn’t mean you can’t include visuals in your assignment, it’s important to learn when to use an image in an essay.

You can add an image in your essay only if it serves a specific purpose such as illustrating an argument for more clarity. If you’re going to include an image in your essay, make sure you present it correctly and at the same time follow the standard citation rules.

In this guide, we’ll talk more about images in an essay, including why they’re important, when exactly to add one in your work, and the right way cite them.

In the end, you should be able to make a solid judgment as far as the inclusion of images in your work is concerned.

Key Takeaways 

• The types of images you can use in an essay are pictures, graphs, and charts.
• It’s acceptable to add an image in an essay to illustrate an argument for more clarity.
• Images can be useful when explaining a process, showing an example, or in the instance when you want to grab your reader’s attention.
• Be advised that you must follow the accepted citation rules when including an image in the essay.

What Type of Images Can You Include in An Essay?

Just because you can include an image in an essay doesn’t mean any image you include in the assignment will be a good fit.

Remember, the role of an image is to give your essay a better structure and make your writing readable and easy to understand.

Instructors don’t impose limits on the types of images a student can include in an essay.

For example, a student working on an IB Physics Internal Assessment can use charts, drawings, photos, and infographic to explain concepts that would be otherwise difficult to explain in words.

However, there are rule you must observe.

1. Pictures 

Pictures introduce breaks between blocks of words in an essay while adding meaning to the overall context of the assignment.

By themselves, pictures are worth a thousand words, which is another way to state that they’re descriptive enough to communicate a solid message.

While you can use any picture in your essay, provided it’s relevant for your topic, the image you choose to include must have meet the following requirements:

• The image should be clear when viewed in web document and in print
• You must have the legal right to use the image in your essay – otherwise you’d have to create your own
• The image you choose should be relevant to the topic of your essay

The next thing you need to understand before including an image in an essay is placement .

In other words, where should you insert the picture?

• End of the essay: Include the image in the reference section of your essay and then include a reference to the image in the body text of your essay.
• In the body of the essay: Have the image inserted on a separate page within the body section of your essay. Don’t forget to mention the picture in the text so that your readers are aware that you’ve intentionally included it in your work.
• Within body text: You can use in-text citations to include an image in your essay, but it’s best to avoid this option because it tends to alter the formatting of the paper.

The picture you include in your essay must have a source name, unique description, and a number to make it easy for your reader to find and reference the image if they want to.

Also, you should attribute the photo if you don’t own it so that you don’t violate the copyright ownership of the material. 

2. Graphs and Charts 

Graphs and charts are the best type of media to include in an essay.

Unlike standard pictures, graphs and charts can easily explain complex concepts in visuals than lengthy words would do. These types of images are useful because they can help you to:

• Illustrate size, meaning, or a degree of influence
• Compare two or more objects 
• Provide an illustration of some statistics that are relevant to your study

The best thing about using graphs and charts in an essay is that you can explain complex concepts and make them easily understood.

So whether you want to show a comparison or believe that graphs and charts can communicate ideas better than words, you can add some visualization to your work to make your essay appear more appealing and easier to read.

You can use ready-made graphs and charts in your work provided you cite them properly.

Or you can use a software solution such as Microsoft PowerPoint to create your own.

Whether you download your media from the web or create them on your own, it’s important that you add appropriate naming and comments to enhance information clarity.  

Get Essay Writing Help 

If you haven’t started your essay because you have many other assignments to complete, you can  hire our essay writers   to help you get the work done fast.

We help with topic selection, research, custom writing, editing and proofreading at an affordable price.

When to Use an Image in an Essay

The following are instance of when it would make sense to use an image in an essay:

1. When Explaining a Process

Some processes are difficult to explain because they are complex.

If you don't think words can adequately convey meaning or the message you wish to communicate, it would be best to use an image to simplify your explanations and bring out meaning.

2. If You Want to Show an Example

Any claim you make in your article or research paper must include proofs and specific examples.

To reinforce your argument, you might provide a graphic or chart as an easy-to-understand illustration.

Let’s say you want to talk about the effects of various medications on bacteria.

In such a case, it would make more sense to use a before-and-after photographs or graphs to illustrate your point.

3. Images Are Useful for Grabbing Reader’s Attention

You can use graphic pictures to draw the attention of your readers. When writing on works of art and cultures, it would make a lot of sense to include images in your piece of writing.

Final Thoughts

To be abundantly clear, images aren’t a requirement in essay writing.

So you should only include them if they serve unique and academically acceptable purpose.

You don’t want to add an aesthetic appeal to your essay when really there’s no need for you to do so in the first place. 

About the author 

Antony W is a professional writer and coach at Help for Assessment. He spends countless hours every day researching and writing great content filled with expert advice on how to write engaging essays, research papers, and assignments.

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How to Format Images in an Essay

5-minute read

• 27th April 2022

Writing an essay ? It may enhance your argument to include some images, as long as they’re directly relevant to the essay’s narrative. But how do you format images in an essay? Read on for tips on inserting and organizing images, creating captions, and referencing.

Inserting Images

To insert an image into the text using Microsoft Word:

●  Place the cursor where you want to add a picture.

●  Go to Insert > Pictures .

●  Click on This Device to add pictures from your own computer or select Online Pictures to search for a picture from the internet.

●  Select the image you wish to use and click Insert .

See our companion blog post for further detail on inserting images into documents using Word.

Organizing Images

There are two common methods of organizing images in your essay: you can either place them next to the paragraph where they are being discussed (in-text), or group them all together at the end of the essay (list of figures). It can be clearer to display images in-text, but remember to refer to your university style guide for its specifications on formatting images.

Whichever method you decide upon, always remember to refer directly to your images in the text of your essay. For example:

●  An example of Cubism can be seen in Figure 1.

●  Cubist paintings have been criticized for being overly abstract (see Figure 1).

●  Many paintings of this style, including those by Picasso (Figure 1), are very abstract.

Every image that you include in your essay needs to have a caption. This is so that the reader can identify the image and where it came from. Each caption should include the following:

●  A label (e.g., Figure 1 ).

●  A description of the image, such as “Picasso’s Guernica ,” or “ Guernica : One of Picasso’s most famous works.”

●  The source of the image. Even if you have created the image yourself, you should attribute it correctly (for example, “photo by author”).

Have a look at this example:

Figure 1: Picasso’s Guernica

Photo: Flickr

Here, the image is given both a label and a title, and its source is clearly identified.

Creating Captions Using Microsoft Word

If you are using Word, it’s very simple to add a caption to an image. Simply follow the steps below:

●  Click on the image.

●  Open the References toolbar and click Insert Caption .

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●  Fill in or select the required details and click OK .

You can also add a caption manually.

Referencing Captions

At this point, you’ll need to refer to your style guide again to check which referencing system you’re using. As mentioned above, all sources should be clearly identified within the caption for the image. However, the format for captions will vary depending on your style guide. Here, we give two examples of common style guides:

• APA 7th Edition

The format for a caption in APA style is as follows:

Note. By Creator’s Initials, Last Name (Year), format. Site Name (or Museum, Location). URL

The image format refers to whether it’s a photograph, painting, or map you are citing. If you have accessed the image online, then you should give the site name, whereas if you have viewed the image in person, you should state the name and location of the museum. The figure number and title should be above the image, as shown:

                     Figure 1

Note . By P. Picasso (1937), painting. Flickr. https://www.flickr.com/photos/huffstutterrobertl/5257246455

If you were to refer to the image in the text of your essay, simply state the creator’s last name and year in parentheses:

(Picasso, 1937).

Remember that you should also include the details of the image in your reference list .

MLA style dictates that an image caption should be centered, and each figure labeled as “Fig.” and numbered. You then have two options for completing the caption:

1. Follow the Works Cited format for citing an image, which is as follows:

Creator’s Last Name, First Name. “Image Title.” Website Name , Day Month Year, URL.

2. Provide key information about the source, such as the creator, title, and year.

In this case, we have followed option 1:

Fig. 1. Picasso, Pablo. “Guernica.” Flickr , 1937, https://www.flickr.com/photos/huffstutterrobertl/5257246455

When referring to the image in the text of the essay, you need only cite the creator’s last name in parentheses:

And, again, remember to include the image within the Works Cited list at the end of your essay.

Expert Proofreading and Formatting

We hope this guide has left you a little clearer on the details of formatting images in your essays . If you need any further help, try accessing our expert proofreading and formatting service . It’s available 24 hours a day!a

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Can I Include Pictures and Graphs in a Research Paper

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Can you put pictures in a research paper

A lot of people ask themselves when writing a research paper “Can I include pictures in a research paper?” Of course, yes. Another traditional way of presenting experimental data in a scientific publication is their graphic representation.

Most often, it is used in articles and research papers, very rarely, when creating abstracts, and never, in summaries and annotations. This is usually an image, necessarily accompanied by a corresponding text, explaining the features of its experimental origin and information purpose.

Can a research paper have pictures, graphs, charts?

Can you use images in a research paper? The answer is yes. Adequate visual representation of the obtained data is able to demonstrate more clearly (in comparison, only with the text or table) the differences, the trend of change, the nature of the interrelations and the very existence of the studied indicators.

The informational essence of such images can reflect either quantitative characteristics obtained by means of measurements or qualitative features, in the form of demonstrating the visual characteristics of the indicator under study (for example, using photography or “artistic image”).

As for the information purpose, it is due to the author’s intentions to draw the reader’s attention to certain features of the results obtained. This intention may consist of the desire to demonstrate either the very fact of the appearance of the changes, or their magnitude, or the tendency, or the type of dependence, etc. We hope that we answered your question if can you use pictures in a research paper.

Types of graphic images

The author’s choice of such a destination determines which kind of graphic image is most rational to use for this purpose, in order to prove most reasonably either a solution of a specific scientific problem or a scientific goal of research. Usually, graphics (1), histograms (2), diagrams (3), schemes (4), drawing images (5) and photographs (6) are used for graphical representation of results. As a rule, the first three of these views are created on the basis of the corresponding tables (not necessarily listed in the article), where the quantitative values (point or averaged) of the primary data are presented.

These values can vary either under the influence of different experimental conditions, or in time, or under the influence of different intensities of the same controlled factor, or reflect the relationship of the two indicators. With the help of the fourth type, it is possible to visually demonstrate the methodological, logical procedures of the scientific approach, the experimental conditions, and so on. And the other types (5 and 6) are mainly used to prove the very fact of the receipt (occurrence) of a qualitative result that cannot be quantified or to demonstrate the appearance of research equipment, questionnaires, questionnaires, etc.

How to include figures in a research paper?

In the process of creating a research paper , after the question “Can research papers include pictures?” and “how to write an introduction for a research paper” you ask yourself “How to add pictures, graphs or charts?” All the listed types of graphical representation of data are recommended to be prepared with the help of the corresponding “program wizards” of the editor “Word” or “Excel.”

It is practically convenient to do this in a special file (for example, “Drawings”) or in a separate file for each figure with the appropriate name (for example, Figure 1). This is due to the fact that according to generally accepted publication terminology, “drawing” refers to any graphic image given in the article, beginning with the scheme and ending with the traditional “artistic” drawing (photograph).

Why can research papers include graphs? In the research paper, only the term “drawing” is always used to refer to the graph, to the histogram, to the diagram, to the diagram, to the “art image,” and to the photograph. The reference to such a drawing is usually given in parentheses with the abbreviation of this word, for example, (Fig. 1), immediately after the first mention of it in the text, in the form of relevant information, and then providing the figure itself.

Can research papers have pictures?

Now when you know the answer to the questions “Can a research paper include pictures?” or “Can a research paper have pictures?” you can start creating “research paper’s drawings.” It is desirable that each separate graphic image, regardless of its variety, is placed on one separate page with the possibility of copying and pasting into the desired place of text.

It is most advisable to do this after printing the entire article, copying the desired drawing (from its file) to a new page after the one where it is referenced for the first time. But you can insert a picture and immediately after a specific sentence, which shows the data presented on it, and the corresponding link. Can you include pictures in a research paper?

Yes, but this will require subsequent special editing of the text on the page, before and after the inserted picture. Therefore, despite the fact that the link to the picture is presented on the same page, prepared in a separate file in advance, it is preferable to place it outside the text, immediately on the next separate page. And after referring to it on the previous page, simply, continue the test description of the other results.

With this arrangement, there can be a link to several pictures on one page, and they will be presented one after the other, on subsequent separate pages. The advantages of such a separate layout of the “drawing,” as well as for the table, are associated with a significant simplification of the text editing of the article and providing greater visibility of the data presented in it.

You can also write to us “do my research paper cheap” and our professional writers will do your paper in short terms.

Can research papers have graphs?

We will answer the question “Can a research paper include graphs?” Yes, it can. To demonstrate the quantitative differences that indicate a comparative change in the same indicator studied in your research paper, a bar graph is usually used – the Gantt chart.

Moreover, it should be emphasized that a clearly visible difference between the columns of the mean values (without the image ± 5) may not serve as a convincing argument in favor of the fact that one of them is larger or smaller than the other.

This is explained by the fact that such a difference between the “average arithmetic” was due to the presence among the averaged values of the ejection (or unexpectedly large or small value).

It is usually a consequence of the influence of the probabilistic factor uncontrolled by the experimenter and indicates a lack of methodological purity of the experiment. Therefore, one must present on the histogram their average quadratic deviations for visual proof of the reliability of the quantitative differences of the average values of the indicator (if it is not done in the text or in the table).

To do this, it is necessary to focus on ending the segments corresponding to the value “± 8”, passing through the upper points of the columns being compared. Demonstrated differences of the indicator are objectively existing (statistically reliable) only when the lower end of the segment (-8) of a larger value is above the upper end of the segment (+8) of a smaller value (i.e., these halves of segments with q values do not overlap).

This “non-overlapping” graphically demonstrates the existence of a statistically significant difference between the comparative mean statistical values and is the basis for their scientific interpretation. If no changes have been recorded, or the apparent differences (based on overlapping the mean square deviation values ± 5) are statistically unreliable, or insignificant, although reliable, then the histogram is not practical. Quite enough, just mention this fact in the text, and in case of urgent need, refer to the appropriate table.

Can you use graphs in research papers? When constructing a histogram, it is necessary to sign the names of the axes (vertical and horizontal), and in relation to the vertical axis, also create a scale with divisions of a certain dimension. The accuracy of these divisions (the frequency of marking on the vertical axis) should allow to visually determining the value of the displayed property of the compared values of the indicator. At the same time, the accuracy of the divisions must be such that it is visually possible to easily determine the smallest difference between the columns shown – the averaged values.

There is no such special scale for a pie chart, so it is sufficient to print the names of each sector corresponding to the property displayed to it and its dimension (usually, in percent,%).

Both for the histogram and for the diagram, it is necessary to provide a clear visual distinction between the compared columns or sectors, not only due to different heights or areas but also by their “coloring.” In this case, it is undesirable to use different colors, because, in a journal article, this is not allowed by editorial rules (all drawings should only be black and white).

Use instead of color, different hatching, and, for neighboring columns and sectors; it is clearly distinguishable (for example, right lateral, and left – oblique or pointed). The “contrast” of perception provided in this way should be more expressive, the less compared the differences in values that are near (on the right and on the left) from its column. The selected black-and-white “texture-hatching” filling the inner space of a column or sector should not make it difficult (mask) to read the inscriptions and figures located in them.

Can a research paper include charts?

To demonstrate the trend of change (and not the magnitude of the differences) over time or under the influence of different intensities of the same factor, or for graphical representation of the mathematical relationship between the indicators, it is more expedient to use the chart in research papers and also for creating your schedule.

Can research papers have charts? Thanks to the graphic image, the tendency-direction, intensity and nature of the revealed changes or interrelations are more clearly monitored. For this, it is necessary to always sign both axes of the coordinates of the graph (both ordinates and abscissas) with the names of the corresponding indicators or only time units for the abscissa axis.

In addition, both these axes must have a scale (a division with the corresponding digitization), the accuracy of which allows us to determine the numerical values of any point on the graph.

First of all, this refers to the experimentally obtained points-values on the basis of which the graph is constructed. Due to this, visual detection of the existence or absence of interrelation between the studied indicators is simplified, which can serve as a basis for further refinement of it by special statistical methods. In this case, it should be stressed once again that it is impossible to determine which of these two interrelated indicators, and which function, cannot be done by any statistical methods.

To determine the cause-effect relationship between the indicators studied, and in such a way to confirm the fact of the change of one of them, only under the influence of the other, it is necessary to conduct purposeful experiments to identify which of them is a function and which is the argument. It is not advisable to construct a graph if there are fewer than four experimentally obtained or averaged values (points) for each of the indicators considered.

This is explained by the fact that it is difficult to determine from three or fewer points a reliably existing trend of change (especially nonlinear). It is more expedient to present such data with either a text or a histogram (with compared columns-values), which will fairly well reflect the changes obtained (without claiming a tendency). And the author does not need to discuss their orientation, but rather confine oneself, only by a comparative analysis of the available quantitative differences (more, less).

Its result can be presented, for example, with a text comment that at such and such a value of one indicator the value of the other was such-and-such, and for another such-and-such. Also, the article should not use a graph in research paper if in the experiment the changes of the same index are fixed under the individual influence of different experimental factors (conditions). For this, it is better to use a bar graph, where the names of these different factors will be listed horizontally, and the property of the indicator under study, whose values correspond to the effect of different experimental factors, will be shown vertically.

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Discussion forum for current, past, and future students of any discipline completing post-graduate studies - taught or research.

Using images from other papers in literature review of thesis/dissertation?

Everything I've read online in how-to guides say it's a no-no, however going through the digital repository at my university I've found several that do. It's difficult to not use images in the literature review in my field, since it involves very small variations in configurations of a medical device.

Of course I will ask my advisor as well, but since I won't be seeing him for another ~2 weeks and want to keep writing, does anyone have any input/advice about what's allowed at their university or what they know of the legality of it? Assuming it's properly cited of course.

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Can I copy an image from another paper (that I am citing)?

I am in the process of writing a paper on the results I have obtained recently. One of the steps where I have innovated is extracted from a paper published some years ago.

My idea for the paper was to compare the original method with my modifications and thus present the different results.

Is it generally accepted practice to simply copy the "results" image from the original paper (that I am extensively citing and discussing in mine)? Or should I somehow recreate it? (this last option is presenting some difficulties, as some implementation details* are not explicitely stated in the original paper and thus I cannot be 100% sure that my reproduction would be actually representative of what the authors originally did)

*: yes, we are speaking (also) about code

• publications

• There are no rules for scientific writing that prevent you from copying the image (in fact, as a reader I would appreciate it), but you need to work out the possible copyright issues (which can be difficult even if you consult a lawyer) or get permission (which often is also not easy). That's why it's not common. –  user9482 Commented Mar 31, 2016 at 7:59
• 1 Read from here as an example. –  Nikey Mike Commented May 13, 2016 at 11:47

You have two different questions: one in your title, regarding coping an image, and another regarding the results.

Copying a figure:

It depends on the license of the paper. If it is appropriately licensed (as with a Creative Commons Attribution license), you generally can, as long as you indicate it. If it is copyrighted, you are in the grey area of possible fair use. In these cases, the safest option is to contact the copyright holders (usually the publisher) and ask for permission.

Another option is to contact the authors and ask them for the raw data itself, so you can plot it yourself (so you keep a constant style across the paper), or ask them to regenerate it for you.

Using results:

The results are not copyrightable, so you can freely use them. If Smith et al, 2007 report an accuracy of 91%, and you get a 97%, you can freely put the numbers next to each other.

• maybe is not clear from my question, but the image in question contains the results (stated otherwise, it is a graphical representation of the results) –  Federico Commented Mar 31, 2016 at 7:58
• 2 There are many countries which don't have a "fair use" concept. I'm not sure if an international publisher would accept fair use. –  user9482 Commented Mar 31, 2016 at 8:03
• @Roland hence the grey area. –  Davidmh Commented Mar 31, 2016 at 9:32
• 1 @ScottSeidman it can be argued that that would be a small quote or a criticism, so falling within fair use. But IANAL, and the publisher will likely want a safer standard. –  Davidmh Commented Mar 31, 2016 at 14:54
• 1 @Diaa it will be somewhere pretty visible. But unless you see otherwise, you have to assume is copyrighted. You'd have to ask the journal you are going to publish. –  Davidmh Commented Aug 8, 2018 at 14:45

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Academic Referencing: How to Cite a Research Paper

Learning how to conduct accurate, discipline-specific academic research can feel daunting at first. But, with a solid understanding of the reasoning behind why we use academic citations coupled with knowledge of the basics, you’ll learn how to cite sources with accuracy and confidence.

When it comes to academic research, citing sources correctly is arguably as important as the research itself. "Your instructors are expecting your work to adhere to these professional standards," said Amanda Girard , research support manager of Shapiro Library at Southern New Hampshire University (SNHU).

With Shapiro Library for the past three years, Girard manages the library’s research support services, which includes SNHU’s 24/7 library chat and email support. She holds an undergraduate degree in professional writing and a graduate degree in library and information science. She said that accurate citations show that you have done your research on a topic and are knowledgeable about current ideas from those actively working in the field.

In other words, when you cite sources according to the academic style of your discipline, you’re giving credit where credit is due.

Why Cite Sources?

Citing sources properly ensures you’re following high academic and professional standards for integrity and ethics.

“When you cite a source, you can ethically use others’ research. If you are not adequately citing the information you claim in your work, it would be considered plagiarism ,” said Shannon Geary '16 , peer tutor at SNHU.

Geary has an undergraduate degree in communication  from SNHU and has served on the academic support team for close to 2 years. Her job includes helping students learn how to conduct research  and write academically.

“In academic writing, it is crucial to state where you are receiving your information from,” she said. “Citing your sources ensures that you are following academic integrity standards.”

According to Geary and Girard, several key reasons for citing sources are:

• Access. Citing sources points readers to original sources. If anyone wants to read more on your topic, they can use your citations as a roadmap to access the original sources.
• Attribution. Crediting the original authors, researchers and experts  shows that you’re knowledgeable about current ideas from those actively working in the field and adhering to high ethical standards, said Girard.
• Clarity. “By citing your sources correctly, your reader can follow along with your research,” Girard said.
• Consistency. Adhering to a citation style provides a framework for presenting ideas within similar academic fields. “Consistent formatting makes accessing, understanding and evaluating an author's findings easier for others in related fields of study,” Geary said.
• Credibility. Proper citation not only builds a writer's authority but also ensures the reliability of the work, according to Geary.

Ultimately, citing sources is a formalized way for you to share ideas as part of a bigger conversation among others in your field. It’s a way to build off of and reference one another’s ideas, Girard said.

How Do You Cite an Academic Research Paper?

Any time you use an original quote or paraphrase someone else’s ideas, you need to cite that material, according to Geary.

“The only time we do not need to cite is when presenting an original thought or general knowledge,” she said.

While the specific format for citing sources can vary based on the style used, several key elements are always included, according to Girard. Those are:

• Title of source
• Type of source, such as a journal, book, website or periodical

By giving credit to the authors, researchers and experts you cite, you’re building credibility. You’re showing that your argument is built on solid research.

“Proper citation not only builds a writer's authority but also ensures the reliability of the work,” Geary said. “Properly formatted citations are a roadmap for instructors and other readers to verify the information we present in our work.”

Common Citation Styles in Academic Research

Certain disciplines adhere to specific citation standards because different disciplines prioritize certain information and research styles . The most common citation styles used in academic research, according to Geary, are:

• American Psychological Association, known as APA . This style is standard in the social sciences such as psychology, education and communication. “In these fields, research happens rapidly, which makes it exceptionally important to use current research,” Geary said.
• Modern Language Association, known as MLA . This style is typically used in literature and humanities because of the emphasis on literature analysis. “When citing in MLA, there is an emphasis on the author and page number, allowing the audience to locate the original text that is being analyzed easily,” Geary said.
• Chicago Manual of Style, known as Chicago . This style is typically used in history, business and sometimes humanities. “(Chicago) offers flexibility because of the use of footnotes, which can be seen as less distracting than an in-text citation,” Geary said.

The benefit of using the same format as other researchers within a discipline is that the framework of presenting ideas allows you to “speak the same language,” according to Girard.

APA Citation for College: A Brief Overview

Are you writing a paper that needs to use APA citation, but don’t know what that means? No worries. You’ve come to the right place.

How to Use MLA Formatting: A Brief Overview

Are you writing a paper for which you need to know how to use MLA formatting, but don’t know what that means? No worries. You’ve come to the right place.

How to Ensure Proper Citations

Keeping track of your research as you go is one of the best ways to ensure you’re citing appropriately and correctly based on the style that your academic discipline uses.

“Through careful citation, authors ensure their audience can distinguish between borrowed material and original thoughts, safeguarding their academic reputation and following academic honesty policies,” Geary said.

Some tips that she and Girard shared to ensure you’re citing sources correctly include:

• Keep track of sources as you work. Writers should keep track of their sources every time an idea is not theirs, according to Geary. “You don’t want to find the perfect research study and misplace its source information, meaning you’d have to omit it from your paper,” she said.
• Practice. Even experienced writers need to check their citations before submitting their work. “Citing requires us to pay close attention to detail, so always start your citation process early and go slow to ensure you don’t make mistakes,” said Geary. In time, citing sources properly becomes faster and easier.
• Use an Online Tool . Geary recommends the Shapiro Library citation guide . You can find sample papers, examples of how to cite in the different academic styles and up-to-date citation requirements, along with information and examples for APA, MLA and Chicago style citations.
• Work with a Tutor. A tutor can offer support along with tips to help you learn the process of academic research. Students at SNHU can connect with free peer tutoring through the Academic Support tab in their online courses, though many colleges and universities offer peer tutoring.

Find Your Program

How to cite a reference in academic writing.

A citation consists of two pieces: an in-text citation that is typically short and a longer list of references or works cited (depending on the style used) at the end of the paper.

“In-text citations immediately acknowledge the use of external source information and its exact location,” Geary said. While each style uses a slightly different format for in-text citations that reference the research, you may expect to need the page number, author’s name and possibly date of publication in parentheses at the end of a sentence or passage, according to Geary.

A longer entry listing the complete details of the resource you referenced should also be included on the references or works cited page at the end of the paper. The full citation is provided with complete details of the source, such as author, title, publication date and more, Geary said.

The two-part aspect of citations is because of readability. “You can imagine how putting the full citation would break up the flow of a paper,” Girard said. “So, a shortened version is used (in the text).”

“For example, if an in-text citation reads (Jones, 2024), the reader immediately knows that the ideas presented are coming from Jones’s work, and they can explore the comprehensive citation on the final page,” she said.

The in-text citation and full citation together provide a transparent trail of the author's process of engaging with research.

“Their combined use also facilitates further research by following a standardized style (APA, MLA, Chicago), guaranteeing that other scholars can easily connect and build upon their work in the future,” Geary said.

Developing and demonstrating your research skills, enhancing your work’s credibility and engaging ethically with the intellectual contributions of others are at the core of the citation process no matter which style you use.

A degree can change your life. Choose your program  from 200+ SNHU degrees that can take you where you want to go.

A former higher education administrator, Dr. Marie Morganelli is a career educator and writer. She has taught and tutored composition, literature, and writing at all levels from middle school through graduate school. With two graduate degrees in English language and literature, her focus — whether teaching or writing — is in helping to raise the voices of others through the power of storytelling. Connect with her on LinkedIn .

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About southern new hampshire university.

SNHU is a nonprofit, accredited university with a mission to make high-quality education more accessible and affordable for everyone.

Founded in 1932, and online since 1995, we’ve helped countless students reach their goals with flexible, career-focused programs . Our 300-acre campus in Manchester, NH is home to over 3,000 students, and we serve over 135,000 students online. Visit our about SNHU  page to learn more about our mission, accreditations, leadership team, national recognitions and awards.

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• Copy URL https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/fact-checking-warnings-from-democrats-about-project-2025-and-donald-trump

Fact-checking warnings from Democrats about Project 2025 and Donald Trump

This fact check originally appeared on PolitiFact .

Project 2025 has a starring role in this week’s Democratic National Convention.

And it was front and center on Night 1.

WATCH: Hauling large copy of Project 2025, Michigan state Sen. McMorrow speaks at 2024 DNC

“This is Project 2025,” Michigan state Sen. Mallory McMorrow, D-Royal Oak, said as she laid a hardbound copy of the 900-page document on the lectern. “Over the next four nights, you are going to hear a lot about what is in this 900-page document. Why? Because this is the Republican blueprint for a second Trump term.”

Vice President Kamala Harris, the Democratic presidential nominee, has warned Americans about “Trump’s Project 2025” agenda — even though former President Donald Trump doesn’t claim the conservative presidential transition document.

“Donald Trump wants to take our country backward,” Harris said July 23 in Milwaukee. “He and his extreme Project 2025 agenda will weaken the middle class. Like, we know we got to take this seriously, and can you believe they put that thing in writing?”

Minnesota Gov. Tim Walz, Harris’ running mate, has joined in on the talking point.

“Don’t believe (Trump) when he’s playing dumb about this Project 2025. He knows exactly what it’ll do,” Walz said Aug. 9 in Glendale, Arizona.

Trump’s campaign has worked to build distance from the project, which the Heritage Foundation, a conservative think tank, led with contributions from dozens of conservative groups.

Much of the plan calls for extensive executive-branch overhauls and draws on both long-standing conservative principles, such as tax cuts, and more recent culture war issues. It lays out recommendations for disbanding the Commerce and Education departments, eliminating certain climate protections and consolidating more power to the president.

Project 2025 offers a sweeping vision for a Republican-led executive branch, and some of its policies mirror Trump’s 2024 agenda, But Harris and her presidential campaign have at times gone too far in describing what the project calls for and how closely the plans overlap with Trump’s campaign.

PolitiFact researched Harris’ warnings about how the plan would affect reproductive rights, federal entitlement programs and education, just as we did for President Joe Biden’s Project 2025 rhetoric. Here’s what the project does and doesn’t call for, and how it squares with Trump’s positions.

Are Trump and Project 2025 connected?

To distance himself from Project 2025 amid the Democratic attacks, Trump wrote on Truth Social that he “knows nothing” about it and has “no idea” who is in charge of it. (CNN identified at least 140 former advisers from the Trump administration who have been involved.)

The Heritage Foundation sought contributions from more than 100 conservative organizations for its policy vision for the next Republican presidency, which was published in 2023.

Project 2025 is now winding down some of its policy operations, and director Paul Dans, a former Trump administration official, is stepping down, The Washington Post reported July 30. Trump campaign managers Susie Wiles and Chris LaCivita denounced the document.

WATCH: A look at the Project 2025 plan to reshape government and Trump’s links to its authors

However, Project 2025 contributors include a number of high-ranking officials from Trump’s first administration, including former White House adviser Peter Navarro and former Housing and Urban Development Secretary Ben Carson.

A recently released recording of Russell Vought, a Project 2025 author and the former director of Trump’s Office of Management and Budget, showed Vought saying Trump’s “very supportive of what we do.” He said Trump was only distancing himself because Democrats were making a bogeyman out of the document.

Project 2025 wouldn’t ban abortion outright, but would curtail access

The Harris campaign shared a graphic on X that claimed “Trump’s Project 2025 plan for workers” would “go after birth control and ban abortion nationwide.”

The plan doesn’t call to ban abortion nationwide, though its recommendations could curtail some contraceptives and limit abortion access.

What’s known about Trump’s abortion agenda neither lines up with Harris’ description nor Project 2025’s wish list.

Project 2025 says the Department of Health and Human Services Department should “return to being known as the Department of Life by explicitly rejecting the notion that abortion is health care.”

It recommends that the Food and Drug Administration reverse its 2000 approval of mifepristone, the first pill taken in a two-drug regimen for a medication abortion. Medication is the most common form of abortion in the U.S. — accounting for around 63 percent in 2023.

If mifepristone were to remain approved, Project 2025 recommends new rules, such as cutting its use from 10 weeks into pregnancy to seven. It would have to be provided to patients in person — part of the group’s efforts to limit access to the drug by mail. In June, the U.S. Supreme Court rejected a legal challenge to mifepristone’s FDA approval over procedural grounds.

WATCH: Trump’s plans for health care and reproductive rights if he returns to White House The manual also calls for the Justice Department to enforce the 1873 Comstock Act on mifepristone, which bans the mailing of “obscene” materials. Abortion access supporters fear that a strict interpretation of the law could go further to ban mailing the materials used in procedural abortions, such as surgical instruments and equipment.

The plan proposes withholding federal money from states that don’t report to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention how many abortions take place within their borders. The plan also would prohibit abortion providers, such as Planned Parenthood, from receiving Medicaid funds. It also calls for the Department of Health and Human Services to ensure that the training of medical professionals, including doctors and nurses, omits abortion training.

The document says some forms of emergency contraception — particularly Ella, a pill that can be taken within five days of unprotected sex to prevent pregnancy — should be excluded from no-cost coverage. The Affordable Care Act requires most private health insurers to cover recommended preventive services, which involves a range of birth control methods, including emergency contraception.

Trump has recently said states should decide abortion regulations and that he wouldn’t block access to contraceptives. Trump said during his June 27 debate with Biden that he wouldn’t ban mifepristone after the Supreme Court “approved” it. But the court rejected the lawsuit based on standing, not the case’s merits. He has not weighed in on the Comstock Act or said whether he supports it being used to block abortion medication, or other kinds of abortions.

Project 2025 doesn’t call for cutting Social Security, but proposes some changes to Medicare

“When you read (Project 2025),” Harris told a crowd July 23 in Wisconsin, “you will see, Donald Trump intends to cut Social Security and Medicare.”

The Project 2025 document does not call for Social Security cuts. None of its 10 references to Social Security addresses plans for cutting the program.

Harris also misleads about Trump’s Social Security views.

In his earlier campaigns and before he was a politician, Trump said about a half-dozen times that he’s open to major overhauls of Social Security, including cuts and privatization. More recently, in a March 2024 CNBC interview, Trump said of entitlement programs such as Social Security, “There’s a lot you can do in terms of entitlements, in terms of cutting.” However, he quickly walked that statement back, and his CNBC comment stands at odds with essentially everything else Trump has said during the 2024 presidential campaign.

Trump’s campaign website says that not “a single penny” should be cut from Social Security. We rated Harris’ claim that Trump intends to cut Social Security Mostly False.

Project 2025 does propose changes to Medicare, including making Medicare Advantage, the private insurance offering in Medicare, the “default” enrollment option. Unlike Original Medicare, Medicare Advantage plans have provider networks and can also require prior authorization, meaning that the plan can approve or deny certain services. Original Medicare plans don’t have prior authorization requirements.

The manual also calls for repealing health policies enacted under Biden, such as the Inflation Reduction Act. The law enabled Medicare to negotiate with drugmakers for the first time in history, and recently resulted in an agreement with drug companies to lower the prices of 10 expensive prescriptions for Medicare enrollees.

Trump, however, has said repeatedly during the 2024 presidential campaign that he will not cut Medicare.

Project 2025 would eliminate the Education Department, which Trump supports

The Harris campaign said Project 2025 would “eliminate the U.S. Department of Education” — and that’s accurate. Project 2025 says federal education policy “should be limited and, ultimately, the federal Department of Education should be eliminated.” The plan scales back the federal government’s role in education policy and devolves the functions that remain to other agencies.

Aside from eliminating the department, the project also proposes scrapping the Biden administration’s Title IX revision, which prohibits discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity. It also would let states opt out of federal education programs and calls for passing a federal parents’ bill of rights similar to ones passed in some Republican-led state legislatures.

Republicans, including Trump, have pledged to close the department, which gained its status in 1979 within Democratic President Jimmy Carter’s presidential Cabinet.

In one of his Agenda 47 policy videos, Trump promised to close the department and “to send all education work and needs back to the states.” Eliminating the department would have to go through Congress.

What Project 2025, Trump would do on overtime pay

In the graphic, the Harris campaign says Project 2025 allows “employers to stop paying workers for overtime work.”

The plan doesn’t call for banning overtime wages. It recommends changes to some Occupational Safety and Health Administration, or OSHA, regulations and to overtime rules. Some changes, if enacted, could result in some people losing overtime protections, experts told us.

The document proposes that the Labor Department maintain an overtime threshold “that does not punish businesses in lower-cost regions (e.g., the southeast United States).” This threshold is the amount of money executive, administrative or professional employees need to make for an employer to exempt them from overtime pay under the Fair Labor Standards Act.

In 2019, the Trump’s administration finalized a rule that expanded overtime pay eligibility to most salaried workers earning less than about $35,568, which it said made about 1.3 million more workers eligible for overtime pay. The Trump-era threshold is high enough to cover most line workers in lower-cost regions, Project 2025 said.

The Biden administration raised that threshold to $43,888 beginning July 1, and that will rise to $58,656 on Jan. 1, 2025. That would grant overtime eligibility to about 4 million workers, the Labor Department said.

It’s unclear how many workers Project 2025’s proposal to return to the Trump-era overtime threshold in some parts of the country would affect, but experts said some would presumably lose the right to overtime wages.

Other overtime proposals in Project 2025’s plan include allowing some workers to choose to accumulate paid time off instead of overtime pay, or to work more hours in one week and fewer in the next, rather than receive overtime.

Trump’s past with overtime pay is complicated. In 2016, the Obama administration said it would raise the overtime to salaried workers earning less than $47,476 a year, about double the exemption level set in 2004 of $23,660 a year.

But when a judge blocked the Obama rule, the Trump administration didn’t challenge the court ruling. Instead it set its own overtime threshold, which raised the amount, but by less than Obama.

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