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• What Is Ethnography? | Definition, Guide & Examples

What Is Ethnography? | Definition, Guide & Examples

Published on March 13, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Ethnography is a type of qualitative research that involves immersing yourself in a particular community or organization to observe their behavior and interactions up close. The word “ethnography” also refers to the written report of the research that the ethnographer produces afterwards.

Ethnography is a flexible research method that allows you to gain a deep understanding of a group’s shared culture, conventions, and social dynamics. However, it also involves some practical and ethical challenges.

Table of contents

What is ethnography used for, different approaches to ethnographic research, gaining access to a community, working with informants, observing the group and taking field notes, writing up an ethnography, other interesting articles.

Ethnographic research originated in the field of anthropology, and it often involved an anthropologist living with an isolated tribal community for an extended period of time in order to understand their culture.

This type of research could sometimes last for years. For example, Colin M. Turnbull lived with the Mbuti people for three years in order to write the classic ethnography The Forest People .

Today, ethnography is a common approach in various social science fields, not just anthropology. It is used not only to study distant or unfamiliar cultures, but also to study specific communities within the researcher’s own society.

For example, ethnographic research (sometimes called participant observation ) has been used to investigate  football fans , call center workers , and police officers .

Advantages of ethnography

The main advantage of ethnography is that it gives the researcher direct access to the culture and practices of a group. It is a useful approach for learning first-hand about the behavior and interactions of people within a particular context.

By becoming immersed in a social environment, you may have access to more authentic information and spontaneously observe dynamics that you could not have found out about simply by asking.

Ethnography is also an open and flexible method. Rather than aiming to verify a general theory or test a hypothesis , it aims to offer a rich narrative account of a specific culture, allowing you to explore many different aspects of the group and setting.

Disadvantages of ethnography

Ethnography is a time-consuming method. In order to embed yourself in the setting and gather enough observations to build up a representative picture, you can expect to spend at least a few weeks, but more likely several months. This long-term immersion can be challenging, and requires careful planning.

Ethnographic research can run the risk of observer bias . Writing an ethnography involves subjective interpretation, and it can be difficult to maintain the necessary distance to analyze a group that you are embedded in.

There are often also ethical considerations to take into account: for example, about how your role is disclosed to members of the group, or about observing and reporting sensitive information.

Should you use ethnography in your research?

If you’re a student who wants to use ethnographic research in your thesis or dissertation , it’s worth asking yourself whether it’s the right approach:

• Could the information you need be collected in another way (e.g. a survey , interviews)?
• How difficult will it be to gain access to the community you want to study?
• How exactly will you conduct your research, and over what timespan?
• What ethical issues might arise?

If you do decide to do ethnography, it’s generally best to choose a relatively small and easily accessible group, to ensure that the research is feasible within a limited timeframe.

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There are a few key distinctions in ethnography which help to inform the researcher’s approach: open vs. closed settings, overt vs. covert ethnography, and active vs. passive observation. Each approach has its own advantages and disadvantages.

Open vs. closed settings

The setting of your ethnography—the environment in which you will observe your chosen community in action—may be open or closed.

An open or public setting is one with no formal barriers to entry. For example, you might consider a community of people living in a certain neighborhood, or the fans of a particular baseball team.

• Gaining initial access to open groups is not too difficult…
• …but it may be harder to become immersed in a less clearly defined group.

A closed or private setting is harder to access. This may be for example a business, a school, or a cult.

• A closed group’s boundaries are clearly defined and the ethnographer can become fully immersed in the setting…
• …but gaining access is tougher; the ethnographer may have to negotiate their way in or acquire some role in the organization.

Overt vs. covert ethnography

Most ethnography is overt . In an overt approach, the ethnographer openly states their intentions and acknowledges their role as a researcher to the members of the group being studied.

• Overt ethnography is typically preferred for ethical reasons, as participants can provide informed consent…
• …but people may behave differently with the awareness that they are being studied.

Sometimes ethnography can be covert . This means that the researcher does not tell participants about their research, and comes up with some other pretense for being there.

• Covert ethnography allows access to environments where the group would not welcome a researcher…
• …but hiding the researcher’s role can be considered deceptive and thus unethical.

Active vs. passive observation

Different levels of immersion in the community may be appropriate in different contexts. The ethnographer may be a more active or passive participant depending on the demands of their research and the nature of the setting.

An active role involves trying to fully integrate, carrying out tasks and participating in activities like any other member of the community.

• Active participation may encourage the group to feel more comfortable with the ethnographer’s presence…
• …but runs the risk of disrupting the regular functioning of the community.

A passive role is one in which the ethnographer stands back from the activities of others, behaving as a more distant observer and not involving themselves in the community’s activities.

• Passive observation allows more space for careful observation and note-taking…
• …but group members may behave unnaturally due to feeling they are being observed by an outsider.

While ethnographers usually have a preference, they also have to be flexible about their level of participation. For example, access to the community might depend upon engaging in certain activities, or there might be certain practices in which outsiders cannot participate.

An important consideration for ethnographers is the question of access. The difficulty of gaining access to the setting of a particular ethnography varies greatly:

• To gain access to the fans of a particular sports team, you might start by simply attending the team’s games and speaking with the fans.
• To access the employees of a particular business, you might contact the management and ask for permission to perform a study there.
• Alternatively, you might perform a covert ethnography of a community or organization you are already personally involved in or employed by.

Flexibility is important here too: where it’s impossible to access the desired setting, the ethnographer must consider alternatives that could provide comparable information.

For example, if you had the idea of observing the staff within a particular finance company but could not get permission, you might look into other companies of the same kind as alternatives. Ethnography is a sensitive research method, and it may take multiple attempts to find a feasible approach.

All ethnographies involve the use of informants . These are people involved in the group in question who function as the researcher’s primary points of contact, facilitating access and assisting their understanding of the group.

This might be someone in a high position at an organization allowing you access to their employees, or a member of a community sponsoring your entry into that community and giving advice on how to fit in.

However,  i f you come to rely too much on a single informant, you may be influenced by their perspective on the community, which might be unrepresentative of the group as a whole.

In addition, an informant may not provide the kind of spontaneous information which is most useful to ethnographers, instead trying to show what they believe you want to see. For this reason, it’s good to have a variety of contacts within the group.

The core of ethnography is observation of the group from the inside. Field notes are taken to record these observations while immersed in the setting; they form the basis of the final written ethnography. They are usually written by hand, but other solutions such as voice recordings can be useful alternatives.

Field notes record any and all important data: phenomena observed, conversations had, preliminary analysis. For example, if you’re researching how service staff interact with customers, you should write down anything you notice about these interactions—body language, phrases used repeatedly, differences and similarities between staff, customer reactions.

Don’t be afraid to also note down things you notice that fall outside the pre-formulated scope of your research; anything may prove relevant, and it’s better to have extra notes you might discard later than to end up with missing data.

Field notes should be as detailed and clear as possible. It’s important to take time to go over your notes, expand on them with further detail, and keep them organized (including information such as dates and locations).

After observations are concluded, there’s still the task of writing them up into an ethnography. This entails going through the field notes and formulating a convincing account of the behaviors and dynamics observed.

The structure of an ethnography

An ethnography can take many different forms: It may be an article, a thesis, or an entire book, for example.

Ethnographies often do not follow the standard structure of a scientific paper, though like most academic texts, they should have an introduction and conclusion. For example, this paper begins by describing the historical background of the research, then focuses on various themes in turn before concluding.

An ethnography may still use a more traditional structure, however, especially when used in combination with other research methods. For example, this paper follows the standard structure for empirical research: introduction, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion.

The content of an ethnography

The goal of a written ethnography is to provide a rich, authoritative account of the social setting in which you were embedded—to convince the reader that your observations and interpretations are representative of reality.

Ethnography tends to take a less impersonal approach than other research methods. Due to the embedded nature of the work, an ethnography often necessarily involves discussion of your personal experiences and feelings during the research.

Ethnography is not limited to making observations; it also attempts to explain the phenomena observed in a structured, narrative way. For this, you may draw on theory, but also on your direct experience and intuitions, which may well contradict the assumptions that you brought into the research.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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Ethnographic Research -Types, Methods and Guide

Table of Contents

Ethnographic Research

Definition:

Ethnographic research is a qualitative research method used to study and document the culture, behaviors, beliefs, and social interactions of a particular group of people. It involves direct observation and participation in the daily life and activities of the group being studied, often for an extended period of time.

Ethnographic Study

An ethnographic study is a research method that involves the detailed and systematic study of a particular group, culture, or community. Ethnographic studies seek to understand the beliefs, values, behaviors, and social dynamics of a group through direct observation and participation in their daily life.

Ethnographic Research vs Ethnographic Study

here’s a table comparing ethnographic study and ethnographic research:

While there are some differences between the two, they are similar in that they both use qualitative research methods to study a particular group, culture, or community. The main difference is that an ethnographic study involves the researcher spending an extended period of time within the community being studied in order to develop a deep understanding, while ethnographic research is focused on documenting and analyzing the culture, beliefs, behaviors, and social interactions of the group being studied.

Ethnographic Research Types

Ethnographic research can be divided into several types based on the focus of the study and the research objectives. Here are some common types of ethnographic research:

Classic Ethnography

This type of ethnographic research involves an extended period of observation and interaction with a particular community or group. The researcher aims to understand the community’s culture, beliefs, practices, and social structure by immersing themselves in the community’s daily life.

Autoethnography

Autoethnography involves the researcher using their own personal experiences to gain insights into a particular community or culture. The researcher may use personal narratives, diaries, or other forms of self-reflection to explore the ways in which their own experiences relate to the culture being studied.

Participatory Action Research

Participatory action research involves the researcher working collaboratively with members of a particular community or group to identify and address social issues affecting the community. The researcher aims to empower community members to take an active role in the research process and to use the findings to effect positive change.

Virtual Ethnography

Virtual ethnography involves the use of online or digital media to study a particular community or culture. The researcher may use social media, online forums, or other digital platforms to observe and interact with the group being studied.

Critical Ethnography

Critical ethnography aims to expose power imbalances and social inequalities within a particular community or culture. The researcher may use their observations to critique dominant cultural narratives or to identify opportunities for social change.

Ethnographic Research Methods

Some common ethnographic research methods include:

Participant Observation

This involves the researcher directly observing and participating in the daily life and activities of the group being studied. This technique helps the researcher gain an in-depth understanding of the group’s behavior, culture, and social dynamics.

Ethnographic researchers use interviews to gather information about the group’s beliefs, values, and practices. Interviews may be formal or informal and can be conducted one-on-one or in group settings.

Surveys can be used to collect data on specific topics, such as attitudes towards a particular issue or behavior patterns. Ethnographic researchers may use surveys as a way to gather quantitative data in addition to qualitative data.

Document Analysis

This involves analyzing written or visual documents produced by the group being studied, such as newspapers, photographs, or social media posts. Document analysis can provide insight into the group’s values, beliefs, and practices.

Field Notes

Ethnographic researchers keep detailed field notes of their observations and interactions with the group being studied. These notes help the researcher organize their thoughts and observations and can be used to analyze the data collected.

Focus Groups

Focus groups are group interviews that allow the researcher to gather information from multiple people at once. This technique can be useful for exploring shared beliefs or experiences within the group being studied.

Ethnographic Research Data Analysis Methods

Ethnographic research data analysis methods involve analyzing qualitative data collected from observations, interviews, and other sources in order to identify patterns, themes, and insights related to the research question.

Here are some common data analysis methods used in ethnographic research:

Content Analysis

This involves systematically coding and categorizing the data collected from field notes, interviews, and other sources. The researcher identifies recurring themes, patterns, and categories in the data and assigns codes or labels to each one.

Narrative Analysis

This involves analyzing the stories and narratives collected from participants in order to understand how they construct and make sense of their experiences. The researcher looks for common themes, plot structures, and rhetorical strategies used by participants.

Discourse Analysis

This involves analyzing the language and communication practices of the group being studied in order to understand how they construct and reproduce social norms and cultural meanings. The researcher looks for patterns in the use of language, including metaphors, idioms, and other linguistic devices.

Comparative Analysis

This involves comparing data collected from different groups or communities in order to identify similarities and differences in their cultures, behaviors, and social structures. The researcher may use this analysis to generate hypotheses about why these differences exist and what factors may be contributing to them.

Grounded Theory

This involves developing a theoretical framework based on the data collected during the research process. The researcher identifies patterns and themes in the data and uses these to develop a theory that explains the social phenomena being studied.

How to Conduct Ethnographic Research

To conduct ethnographic research, follow these general steps:

• Choose a Research Question: Identify a research question that you want to explore. It should be focused and specific, but also open-ended to allow for flexibility and exploration.
• Select a research site: Choose a site or group that is relevant to your research question. This could be a workplace, a community, a social movement, or any other social setting where you can observe and interact with people.
• Obtain ethical clearance: Obtain ethical clearance from your institution or organization before beginning your research. This involves ensuring that your research is conducted in an ethical and responsible manner, and that the privacy and confidentiality of participants are protected.
• Conduct observations: Observe the people in your research site and take detailed notes. This involves being present and engaged in the social setting, participating in activities, and taking note of the behaviors, interactions, and social norms that you observe.
• Conduct interviews : Conduct interviews with people in the research site to gain deeper insights into their experiences, perspectives, and beliefs. This could involve structured or semi-structured interviews, focus groups, or other forms of data collection.
• Analyze data: Analyze the data that you have collected, looking for themes and patterns that emerge. This involves immersing yourself in the data and interpreting it within the social and cultural context of the research site.
• Write up findings: Write up your findings in a clear and concise manner, using quotes and examples to illustrate your key points. This may involve creating narratives, tables, or other visual representations of your findings.
• Reflect on your process: Reflect on your process and methods, thinking about what worked well and what could be improved for future research.

When to Use Ethnographic Research

Here are some situations where ethnographic research may be particularly appropriate:

• When exploring a new topic: Ethnographic research can be useful when exploring a topic that has not been well-studied before. By engaging with members of a particular group or community, researchers can gain insights into their experiences and perspectives that may not be visible from other research methods.
• When studying cultural practices: Ethnographic research is particularly useful when studying cultural practices and beliefs. By immersing themselves in the cultural context being studied, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of the ways in which cultural practices are enacted, maintained, and transmitted.
• When studying complex social phenomena: Ethnographic research can be useful when studying complex social phenomena that cannot be easily understood through quantitative methods. By observing social interactions and behaviors, researchers can gain insights into the ways in which social norms and structures are created and maintained.
• When studying marginalized communities: Ethnographic research can be particularly useful when studying marginalized communities, as it allows researchers to give voice to members of these communities and understand their experiences and perspectives.

Overall, ethnographic research can be a useful research approach when the goal is to gain a deep understanding of a particular group or community and their cultural practices, beliefs, and experiences. It is a flexible and adaptable research method that can be used in a variety of research contexts.

Applications of Ethnographic Research

Ethnographic research has many applications across a wide range of fields and disciplines. Some of the key applications of ethnographic research include:

• Informing policy and practice: Ethnographic research can provide valuable insights into the experiences and perspectives of marginalized or underrepresented groups, which can inform policy and practice in fields such as health care, education, and social services.
• Developing theories and concepts: Ethnographic research can contribute to the development of theories and concepts in social and cultural anthropology, sociology, and other disciplines, by providing detailed and nuanced accounts of social and cultural phenomena.
• Improving product design and marketing: Ethnographic research can be used to understand consumer behavior and preferences, which can inform the design and marketing of products and services.
• Studying workplace culture: Ethnographic research can provide insights into the norms, values, and practices of organizations, which can inform efforts to improve workplace culture and employee satisfaction.
• Examining social movements: Ethnographic research can be used to study the practices, beliefs, and experiences of social movements, which can inform efforts to understand and address social and political issues.
• Studying healthcare practices: Ethnographic research can provide insights into healthcare practices and patient experiences, which can inform efforts to improve healthcare delivery and patient outcomes.

Examples of Ethnographic Research

Here are some real-time examples of ethnographic research:

• Anthropological study of a remote indigenous tribe: Anthropologists often use ethnographic research to study remote indigenous tribes and gain insights into their culture, beliefs, and practices. For example, an anthropologist may live with a tribe for an extended period of time, observing and participating in their daily activities, and conducting interviews with members of the community.
• Study of workplace culture: Ethnographic research can be useful in studying workplace culture and understanding the dynamics of the organization. For example, an ethnographer may observe and interview employees in a particular department or team to gain insights into their work practices, communication styles, and social dynamics.
• Study of consumer behavior: Ethnographic research can be useful in studying consumer behavior and understanding how people interact with products and services. For example, an ethnographer may observe and interview consumers as they use a particular product, such as a new smartphone or fitness tracker, to gain insights into their behaviors and preferences.
• Study of health care practices: Ethnographic research can be useful in studying health care practices and understanding how patients and providers interact within the health care system. For example, an ethnographer may observe and interview patients and providers in a hospital or clinic to gain insights into their experiences and perspectives.
• Study of social movements: Ethnographic research can be useful in studying social movements and understanding how they emerge and evolve over time. For example, an ethnographer may observe and interview participants in a protest movement to gain insights into their motivations and strategies.

Purpose of Ethnographic Research

The purpose of ethnographic research is to provide an in-depth understanding of a particular group or community, including their cultural practices, beliefs, and experiences. This research approach is particularly useful when the research question is exploratory and the goal is to generate new insights and understandings. Ethnographic research seeks to understand the experiences, perspectives, and behaviors of the participants in their natural setting, without imposing the researcher’s own biases or preconceptions.

Ethnographic research can be used to study a wide range of topics, including social movements, workplace culture, consumer behavior, and health care practices, among others. The researcher aims to understand the social and cultural context of the group or community being studied, and to generate new insights and understandings that can inform future research, policy, and practice.

Overall, the purpose of ethnographic research is to gain a deep understanding of a particular group or community, with the goal of generating new insights and understandings that can inform future research, policy, and practice. Ethnographic research can be a valuable research approach in many different contexts, particularly when the goal is to gain a rich, contextualized understanding of social and cultural phenomena.

Advantages of Ethnographic Research

Ethnographic research has several advantages that make it a valuable research approach in many different fields. Here are some of the advantages of ethnographic research:

• Provides in-depth and detailed information: Ethnographic research involves direct observation of the group or community being studied, which allows researchers to gain a detailed and in-depth understanding of their beliefs, practices, and experiences. This type of information cannot be obtained through other research methods.
• Offers a unique perspective: Ethnographic research allows researchers to see the world from the perspective of the group or community being studied. This can provide unique insights into the ways in which different cultural practices and beliefs are constructed and maintained.
• Promotes cultural understanding: Ethnographic research can help to promote cultural understanding and reduce stereotypes by providing a more nuanced and accurate picture of different cultures and communities.
• Allows for flexibility: Ethnographic research is a flexible research approach that can be adapted to fit different research contexts and questions. Researchers can adjust their methods based on the needs of the group being studied and the research goals.
• Generates rich and diverse data: Ethnographic research generates rich and diverse data through a combination of observation, interviews, and other methods. This allows researchers to analyze different aspects of the group or community being studied and identify patterns and themes in the data.
• Supports theory development: Ethnographic research can support theory development by providing empirical data that can be used to test and refine theoretical frameworks.

Limitations of Ethnographic Research

Ethnographic research has several limitations that researchers should consider when selecting this research approach. Here are some of the limitations of ethnographic research:

• Limited generalizability: Ethnographic research typically involves studying a small and specific group or community, which limits the generalizability of the findings to other contexts or populations.
• Time-consuming: Ethnographic research is a time-consuming process that requires a significant investment of time and resources. Researchers must spend time observing and interacting with the group being studied, which may not be feasible in all research contexts.
• Subjectivity: Ethnographic research relies on the researcher’s interpretation and analysis of the data collected, which may introduce subjective bias into the research findings.
• Limited control: Ethnographic research involves studying a group or community in their natural setting, which limits the researcher’s control over the research context and the behavior of the participants.
• Ethical concerns: Ethnographic research can raise ethical concerns, particularly when studying marginalized or vulnerable populations. Researchers must be careful to ensure that they do not harm or exploit the participants in the research process.
• Limited quantitative data: Ethnographic research typically generates qualitative data, which may limit the types of analysis that can be conducted and the types of conclusions that can be drawn.

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Ethnography In Qualitative Research

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On This Page:

What is Ethnography?

Ethnography is a qualitative research method that emphasizes studying what people do and say in particular contexts. Ethnographers typically spend considerable time observing and interacting with a social group to understand how the group develops cultural constructions and relations.

Ethnography is used anthropology and other social sciences to systematically study people and cultures.

The goal of ethnography is to explore cultural phenomena from the perspective of the subjects being studied.

They aim to uncover the reasons for particular behaviors and practices within a specific cultural context. For example, an ethnographic study might examine why certain communities use specific child-rearing techniques or how cultural values influence emotional expression.

This often involves immersing oneself in a community or organization to observe their behaviors and interactions up close.

Ethnographic research is often open-ended and exploratory. Researchers may enter the field with a research question in mind, but they remain open to unexpected findings and allow the social order of the community to guide their observations.

This openness to discovery helps researchers develop a deeper understanding of the cultural phenomena they study.

How does an ethnographic perspective view psychological knowledge?

Ethnography considers the social context of psychological phenomena to be critical to the field of psychology.

An ethnographic perspective argues that psychological knowledge is not complete unless it examines how communal practices, economic and political structures, shared values, histories, aspirations, and other life dimensions shape human experiences.

The interaction of identity and self-definition is dynamic and shaped by an individual’s social contexts.

Ethnography is primarily used in the following situations:

• Cultural anthropology : Ethnography is the primary research method used by cultural anthropologists to study and understand different societies and cultures around the world. Margaret Mead conducted ethnographic research among the Arapesh, Mundugumor, and Tchambuli people of New Guinea, which resulted in her book Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies (1935). In this work, she explored the ways in which gender roles and personality traits varied across cultures.
• Sociology : Ethnographic methods are used in sociology to study subcultures, communities, and social groups within a larger society, such as urban neighborhoods, religious communities, or professional groups. Paul Willis conducted an ethnographic study of working-class youth culture, presented in his work Learning to Labo r. Willis sought to understand why working-class youth often ended up in working-class jobs. His research involved a series of interviews and observations, focusing on a school setting to gain insight into the connection between working-class backgrounds and career trajectories. Willis concluded that working-class children often develop a counter-school culture, characterized by opposition to academics and authority figures.
• Education : Ethnography is used in educational research to study classroom dynamics, student-teacher interactions, and the impact of cultural factors on learning.
• Healthcare : Ethnography is used in healthcare research to study patient experiences, healthcare provider practices, and the cultural factors that influence health behaviors and outcomes.
• Social work : Ethnographic research helps social workers understand the lived experiences of marginalized or vulnerable populations, informing the development of more effective interventions and support services.
• Policy and development : Ethnography is used in policy research and international development to assess the impact of policies and programs on local communities and to ensure that development initiatives are culturally appropriate and sustainable.

What distinguishes ethnography from other qualitative methods?

While ethnography shares commonalities with other qualitative methods, these distinctions highlight its unique capacity to provide rich, nuanced insights into the complexities of human behavior and culture.

• Immersive Fieldwork: Unlike other qualitative methods that might rely solely on interviews or surveys, ethnography necessitates the researcher to be directly involved in the community or group they are studying, often for extended periods. This immersive approach allows for a depth of understanding unattainable through less participatory methods.
• Unstructured Data Collection: Ethnographers typically begin their research with a more exploratory approach rather than testing predetermined hypotheses. They embrace unstructured data collection, allowing patterns and theories to emerge from their observations and interactions rather than imposing pre-existing frameworks.
• Emphasis on Observation Over Interviews: Although interviews are a common tool in ethnographic research, the core of the method lies in observing what people do rather than solely relying on what they say . This focus on action allows ethnographers to identify discrepancies between stated beliefs and actual practices, providing a richer understanding of the complexities within a social group.
• Interpretative and Reflexive Analysis: Ethnographers acknowledge the inherent subjectivity involved in interpreting social phenomena. They embrace reflexivity, acknowledging that their own backgrounds and perspectives shape how they observe and interpret data.
• Focus on Process, Meaning, and Place: Ethnography seeks to uncover the dynamic processes, shared meanings, and influence of place that shape social life. It investigates how individuals make sense of their world and how these understandings influence their actions and interactions within specific geographical and social contexts.
• Thick description : Thick description, a concept by Geertz, is an ethnographer’s in-depth and nuanced representation of social life that goes beyond simple observation, exploring the meanings and motivations behind behaviors. This nuanced understanding illustrates how ethnographers use thick description to reveal what is “at stake” in people’s lives.

Gaining Access to a Community for Ethnographic Research

Negotiating access to a community for research can be a delicate process, requiring sensitivity and understanding of local social practices.

There is no one-size-fits-all approach; instead, researchers must adapt their approach to the specific community and setting they wish to study.

• Initial Contact: Start by identifying potential participants and settings relevant to the research question. Initial contact can be made remotely through emails, calls, or social connections. Reaching out to researchers who have previously worked in the field can be beneficial. Physical visits to the field can also be helpful in the initial stages.
• Building Trust and Understanding Local Norms: Establishing trust is paramount in ethnographic research. Researchers should prioritize initiating contact in a manner that aligns with the community’s social practices. For example, directly emailing community centers in a culture that values personal introductions might be ineffective. Introducing the researcher through a trusted community member, like a friend or neighbor, can foster trust and facilitate acceptance. Researchers should remain mindful of their position in relation to the community’s cultural norms and how their presence might be perceived.
• Addressing Challenges and Maintaining Access: Unexpected challenges and setbacks are common in ethnographic research. Embracing methodological agility allows researchers to adapt their methods to the contingencies of the field site and view setbacks as opportunities for refining research design. Flexibility is key, and researchers should be open to exploring alternative settings or communities if access to the initial choice proves difficult.
• Ethical Considerations and Reciprocity: Ethnographic research involves a responsibility to the community being studied. Ethnographers must be aware of the power dynamics inherent in research and strive to minimize harm by respecting participants’ privacy and cultural norms. Researchers should consider how their work can benefit the community, for instance, by offering insights, providing resources, or advocating for positive change.

Working with Informants in Ethnography

Informants are crucial to ethnographic research, acting as primary points of contact and facilitating the researcher’s understanding of the group being studied.

Identifying the right informants is vital, and a “friend-of-a-friend” approach, leveraging existing social networks, can be advantageous.

This method can grant access to otherwise inaccessible aspects of social life and provide a unique, embedded perspective on the community’s language use and attitudes.

However, over-reliance on a single informant can skew the researcher’s perspective, potentially leading to biased or unrepresentative findings.

An informant may consciously or unconsciously shape their interactions with the researcher to align with what they believe is expected, hindering the collection of spontaneous and authentic data.

Therefore, it’s essential to cultivate relationships with a diverse range of informants within the community. This approach helps ensure a more comprehensive understanding of the group’s dynamics and mitigates the risk of individual bias influencing the research findings.

While the sources don’t provide detailed steps on managing relationships with multiple informants, they emphasize the importance of ethical considerations, open communication, and building trust throughout the research process.

Data Sources in Ethnographic Research

Ethnographers often employ a  multi-method approach , combining data from these various sources to create a rich and comprehensive understanding of the group being studied.

They may also utilize audio and video recordings to capture interactions and analyze nonverbal communication.

The choice of specific data collection methods depends on factors like the research question, available resources, and ethical considerations

• Participant observation involves the researcher immersing themselves in the daily life of a community to gain an understanding of the actions, activities, rituals, routines, and daily practices. The ethnographer might participate in activities to learn through experience or observe from the sidelines. There are varying levels of participation in this method. Some researchers fully adopt the social role they are studying, like a factory worker or police officer, to better understand the group’s worldview. Others maintain a more detached relationship, observing from the sidelines, while acknowledging that some interaction is inevitable.
• Field notes  are a primary data source, meticulously recording observations, conversations, and preliminary analyses made during immersion in the research setting3.
• Interviews  play a significant role, providing insights into individuals’ perspectives and experiences within the group. Interviews provide a source of witness accounts about settings and events in the social world that the ethnographer may or may not have been able to observe.
• Documents , both official and personal, can offer valuable contextual information and supplement observational data

When conducting ethnographic research, researchers should be mindful of their ontological and epistemological stances, their research questions, and the context of their research.

Ethnographers must also consider ethical implications, the type of data they are collecting, and how their findings will be used.

What are the limitations of solely relying on interviews in ethnographic research?

While interviews are a common element of ethnographic research, relying on them solely as a source of data has some significant limitations.

• Discrepancies Between Words and Actions : Interviews primarily capture what people say about their lives, beliefs, and practices. However, what people say and what they actually do can differ. Observing participants in their natural environment can reveal these discrepancies and provide a more complete understanding of their lived experiences.
• Influence of Interviewer and Context : The interview itself is a constructed situation that can influence participants’ responses. Participants may modify their language or opinions to align with perceived expectations or power dynamics, particularly when discussing sensitive topics.
• Limited Insight into Meaning-Making : While interviews can provide information about perspectives and beliefs, they may not fully capture the subtle ways cultural meanings are embedded in everyday practices and interactions. Ethnographic observation allows researchers to witness these meaning-making processes firsthand.
• Difficulty in Capturing Complexity : Interviews, especially structured ones, often rely on pre-determined questions and response categories. This approach can oversimplify complex cultural phenomena and miss nuances that emerge through observation of natural interactions.

Supplementing Interviews with Observation

To mitigate these limitations, sources emphasize the importance of combining interviews with other ethnographic methods, primarily participant observation .

• Observing participants in their natural environment provides a more holistic and nuanced understanding of their practices, interactions, and the cultural meanings embedded within them.
• This immersive approach allows researchers to go beyond self-reported accounts and gain insights that might not be revealed through interviews alone.

Skills Required for Ethnographic Studies

• High Degree of Interpretative Agility: Understanding the intricacies of ethnographic studies necessitates a high degree of interpretative agility to make sense of the diverse range of issues and facts gathered.
• Cultural Sensitivity: Sensitivity towards the culture, values, and norms of the social setting is paramount for conducting ethical and meaningful research. This is essential for building trust and rapport with research participants and understanding their perspectives.
• Reflexivity : Ethnographers must be self-aware and reflective about their own positionality, biases, and impact on the research process, and be transparent about these factors in their writing.

The Role of Reflexivity in Ethnography

Reflexivity in ethnographic writing involves thoughtfully examining how the researcher’s background, beliefs, and position influence their observations, interpretations, and the final ethnographic account.

It’s a crucial aspect of producing responsible and insightful ethnographic work.

• Acknowledging Subjectivity: Ethnographers who practice reflexivity understand that their accounts are not objective truths, but rather interpretations shaped by their own experiences and perspectives. They acknowledge that other researchers, with different backgrounds and positions, might interpret the same data differently.
• Positioning the Researcher: Reflexivity encourages ethnographers to explicitly consider and articulate how their personal and cultural background, as well as their social position relative to the community being studied, might influence their understanding of the observed phenomena. This includes acknowledging any preconceived notions or biases they bring to the research.
• Examining Power Dynamics: Ethnographic research often involves power imbalances between the researcher and the researched, especially when studying marginalized groups. Reflexivity encourages researchers to critically examine these power dynamics and to consider how their work might perpetuate or challenge existing inequalities. This involves being transparent about the research process and engaging in ethical practices that protect participants.
• Enhancing the Validity of Findings : Ultimately, reflexivity aims to strengthen the ethnographic account by making the researcher’s interpretive process more transparent and by providing a more nuanced and accountable representation of the community being studied. This can involve explicitly discussing the researcher’s positionality and reflecting on how their presence might have influenced the data collected.

It is important to note that while reflexivity is widely recognized as crucial in ethnography, there are different understandings of its application and implications.

Some argue for a more radical approach that emphasizes the subjective nature of ethnographic knowledge and the limitations of representation.

Others advocate for a more moderate stance that acknowledges the importance of reflexivity while still striving for rigorous and insightful accounts of social reality.

Importance of Local Context in Ethnography

Understanding the local context is crucial for ethnographic research because it allows researchers to accurately interpret the meanings behind people’s actions and perspectives within their specific social and cultural environment.

Ethnography examines the intricate relationships between human agency and the structures of society within the everyday experiences of a particular place. This method aims to understand the processes and meanings that underpin social life, recognizing that these processes and meanings vary across locations.

Here’s why local context is so important for ethnographic research:

• Connecting Macro and Micro Levels of Analysis: Ethnography aims to reveal the link between large-scale societal structures and the everyday experiences of individuals. The local context provides the specific setting where these connections are made visible and understandable. For instance, studying violence statistically cannot capture the contextual factors that lead to it, but ethnographic research can uncover the specific social dynamics and meanings within particular places that contribute to such behavior.
• Uncovering Meaning Systems: The meanings people assign to events and actions are often deeply embedded within their local culture and not always explicitly stated. Ethnographers, by immersing themselves in the local context, can gradually understand these meaning systems through prolonged observation, interaction, and analysis of daily practices.
• Context-Sensitivity of Behavior: People’s actions and accounts of their actions are highly context-dependent, meaning they can vary significantly across different settings. Ethnographic research acknowledges this by emphasizing firsthand observation and understanding of the local context to ensure accurate interpretation of behavior and perspectives.
• Avoiding Misinterpretation: Without a deep understanding of the local context, researchers risk misinterpreting observations or imposing their own cultural biases on the data. Immersing oneself in the local context allows ethnographers to develop cultural competence and sensitivity, which helps them arrive at more accurate and insightful interpretations of the group’s actions and beliefs.

In essence, understanding the local context is not just about knowing where something occurs, but about comprehending the intricate web of cultural meanings, social dynamics, and historical factors that shape people’s lives and experiences in that specific location.

This understanding is fundamental to the ethnographic approach and its ability to generate meaningful insights into human behavior and social life.

Challenges in Conducting Ethnographic Research

Ethnography, a qualitative research method focusing on the study of people and cultures, presents a unique set of challenges for researchers:

• Time Commitment : Ethnography is a time-consuming endeavor. Researchers need to spend significant time immersed in the community or organization they are studying to build relationships, observe interactions, and gain a deep understanding of the culture. This long-term immersion requires careful planning and can be personally demanding. For instance, some research may necessitate a “focused” or “mini” ethnography lasting a few weeks or months, while others require a year or more.
• Observer Bias : Ethnographers are at risk of introducing their own biases into the research. Writing an ethnography involves subjective interpretation, and it can be difficult to remain objective when analyzing a group in which the researcher is deeply involved. The researcher’s background, beliefs, and experiences can influence their observations and interpretations.
• Representing Culture : Writing about other people is inherently complicated, and ethnographers must consider how to describe people in a manner that is informative, honest, sensitive, and ethical.
• Ethical Issues : Recognize that ethnographers often hold a position of power relative to the communities they study, particularly when working with marginalized groups. Ensure participants are volunteers who understand the study’s purpose and their right to withdraw.
• Gaining Access : Getting access to a community or organization for research can be a delicate process. Researchers need to establish trust with gatekeepers and negotiate their role within the community. This can be particularly difficult in settings that are closed or suspicious of outsiders. For instance, researchers may face resistance from organizations concerned about negative publicity stemming from the study’s findings.
• Data Analysis and Interpretation : Ethnographic research often generates large amounts of data in various forms, such as field notes, interviews, and documents. Analyzing this data and developing meaningful interpretations can be challenging and time-consuming. Researchers must develop systematic ways to manage, analyze, and interpret their data while staying true to the experiences and perspectives of the participants.
• Generalizability : The findings of ethnographic research, which typically focuses on a specific case or setting, can be challenging to generalize to other populations or contexts. The in-depth, context-specific nature of ethnographic research, while a strength in understanding a particular group, poses challenges for drawing broader conclusions about human behavior and social phenomena.
• External Pressures : Ethnographers may face pressure from funding agencies or institutions to conduct research that aligns with specific agendas or produces immediate, tangible outcomes. This pressure can create ethical dilemmas and compromise the integrity of the research. For example, ethnography may be perceived as an inefficient research method due to its reliance on long-term engagement.

Strategies for Ethical Representation

Any ethnographic account of another cultural group risks engaging in what Edward Said (1978) called the “politics of othering,” potentially distorting the lives of those being studied in support of “scientific racism and projects of colonial domination and exploitation”.

The ethnographer should chronicle the community’s experiences, including their struggles, aspirations, losses, and stagnation, with compassion

Thick Description

Provide a nuanced perspective on social life, connecting observed behaviors to underlying meanings, emotions, and decision-making strategies, while avoiding simplistic or reductive accounts of complex experiences.

For example, instead of simply stating that Alzheimer’s carries a social stigma, an ethnographer might connect this observation to the community’s beliefs about family and social change.

Respect and Dignity

Represent individuals with respect and dignity, appreciating their values within the context of their lives.

The ethnographer should chronicle the community’s experiences, including their struggles, aspirations, losses, and stagnation, with compassion.

Reflexivity and Collaboration

Acknowledge the historical legacy of ethnography, including its role in colonialism and the potential for exploitative research practices.

Ethnographers should strive for a more equitable and collaborative approach by:

• Recognizing participants as “epistemic agents and interlocutors” who contribute theoretical interpretations, not merely data points2.
• Involving community members in shaping research questions, data analysis, and the dissemination of findings.
• Considering co-authorship with community members

Strengths of Ethnography

• Ethnography offers a nuanced understanding of cultural phenomena by directly observing behaviors and interactions within a specific community or organization. This immersive approach allows researchers to gain firsthand knowledge of shared culture, conventions, and social dynamics. Ethnography is particularly useful for studying complex social phenomena like football fans, call center workers, and police officers.
• Flexibility, allowing researchers to adapt their research strategy and direction based on their observations and developing understanding. Rather than aiming to confirm a hypothesis or test a general theory, ethnographic research prioritizes providing a comprehensive and detailed narrative of a specific culture. This open-ended approach enables the exploration of various aspects of the group and setting being studied.
• Ethnographers can uncover authentic information and observe spontaneous dynamics that might not surface through direct questioning. By becoming immersed in the social environment, researchers gain access to a deeper understanding of the lived experiences of the group under study. For example, ethnographers can examine discrepancies between what people say and their actual actions, providing insights that other methodologies might miss.
• Ethnography enables researchers to understand the meanings behind social actions by revealing the knowledge and meaning structures that guide them. Through prolonged engagement and observation, ethnographers gain insight into the cultural systems of meaning that shape individuals’ perceptions and actions. Unlike surveys or interviews with pre-determined questions, ethnography allows for an emergent understanding of the cultural competencies within a social setting.
• Ethnographic research relies on a comprehensive approach to data collection, incorporating observations, conversations, and preliminary analysis through detailed field notes. This rigorous documentation helps ensure the accuracy and representativeness of the findings. Moreover, ethnography goes beyond simply describing behaviors; it strives to provide a structured explanation of the observed phenomena, drawing on the researcher’s direct experiences, intuitions, and relevant theoretical frameworks.

However, it’s important to note that ethnography, while valuable, has limitations. It is a time-consuming method requiring significant planning and careful consideration of ethical issues.

Additionally, maintaining objectivity and minimizing observer bias can be a challenge due to the researcher’s immersive role.

Further Information

• Brewer, J. (2000).  Ethnography . McGraw-Hill Education (UK).
• Hammersley, M. (2006). Ethnography: problems and prospects .  Ethnography and education ,  1 (1), 3-14.
• Herbert, S. (2000). For ethnography .  Progress in human geography ,  24 (4), 550-568.
• Lew-Levy, S., Reckin, R., Lavi, N., Cristóbal-Azkarate, J., & Ellis-Davies, K. (2017). How do hunter-gatherer children learn subsistence skills? A meta-ethnographic review. Human Nature,  28 (4), 367–394.  https://doi.org/10.1007/S12110-017-9302-2
• Mead, M. (1963). Sex and temperament in three primitive societies (Vol. 370). New York: Morrow.
• Said, E. W. (2013). Orientalism reconsidered. In  Literature Politics & Theory  (pp. 230-249). Routledge.
• Willis, P. (1977). Learning to Labor: How Working-class Kids Get Working-class Jobs . New York: Colombia University Press

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Qualitative research methodologies: ethnography

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• Peer review
• Scott Reeves , associate professor 1 ,
• Ayelet Kuper , assistant professor 2 ,
• Brian David Hodges , associate professor and vice chair (education) 3
• 1 Department of Psychiatry, Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, Centre for Faculty Development, and Wilson Centre for Research in Education, University of Toronto, 200 Elizabeth Street, Eaton South 1-565, Toronto, ON, Canada M5G 2C4
• 2 Department of Medicine, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, and Wilson Centre for Research in Education, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada M4N 3M5
• 3 Department of Psychiatry, Wilson Centre for Research in Education, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada M5G 2C4
• Correspondence to: S Reeves scott.reeves{at}utoronto.ca

The previous articles (there were 2 before this 1) in this series discussed several methodological approaches commonly used by qualitative researchers in the health professions. This article focuses on another important qualitative methodology: ethnography. It provides background for those who will encounter this methodology in their reading rather than instructions for carrying out such research.

What is ethnography?

Ethnography is the study of social interactions, behaviours, and perceptions that occur within groups, teams, organisations, and communities. Its roots can be traced back to anthropological studies of small, rural (and often remote) societies that were undertaken in the early 1900s, when researchers such as Bronislaw Malinowski and Alfred Radcliffe-Brown participated in these societies over long periods and documented their social arrangements and belief systems. This approach was later adopted by members of the Chicago School of Sociology (for example, Everett Hughes, Robert Park, Louis Wirth) and applied to a variety of urban settings in their studies of social life.

The central aim of ethnography is to provide rich, holistic insights into people’s views and actions, as well as the nature (that is, sights, sounds) of the location they inhabit, through the collection of detailed observations and interviews. As Hammersley states, “The task [of ethnographers] is to document the culture, the perspectives and practices, of the people in these settings. The aim is to ‘get inside’ the way each group of people sees the world.” 1 Box 1 outlines the key features of ethnographic research.

Box 1 Key features of ethnographic research 2

A strong emphasis on exploring the nature of a particular social phenomenon, rather than setting out to test hypotheses about it

A tendency to work primarily with “unstructured data” —that is, data that have not been coded at the point of data collection as a closed set of analytical categories

Investigation of a small number of cases (perhaps even just …

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Chapter 9: Ethnography

Darshini Ayton

Learning outcomes

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

• Identify the key terms and concepts used in ethnography.
• Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of ethnography.

What is ethnography?

The key concept in ethnography is culture .

Ethnography studies emerged from the discipline of anthropology. They aim to understand the meanings and behaviours associated with the membership of groups, teams, organisations and communities. 1 The focus of ethnographic research is on the lived culture of groups of people; ethnographers have studied systems of belief, religious frameworks, worldviews and structures that form the social world. There are many definitions of culture. In ethnography, culture is defined as the group norms and expectations that allow members of the group to communicate and work together. This includes attributes, beliefs, customs, behaviours, knowledge, capabilities and habits. Examples of cultural groups include people from a particular region or race, religious groups, organisational groups, workplaces and social groups (for example, friendship groups, and mothers groups). Note that culture is dynamic and socially constructed and it is normal for there to be sub-cultures within cultural groups. 2

Multiple methods can be used in ethnographic research, but participant observation is a hallmark method. 1,3 To explore culture requires a ‘triangulation’; that is,  the use of multiple methods, such as observations and interviews, to develop a comprehensive understanding of culture through observing people and listening to what they have to say about (or within) the culture.

Several approaches to data analysis lend themselves to ethnography, including the identification, study and analysis of patterns. The process of analysis follows a typically unstructured and iterative path consisting of description (describing data), analysis (examining relationships and linkages) and interpretation (explanations beyond analysis). 4

There are other key concepts in ethnographic research, which are outlined below.

Additional key concepts in ethnographic research

• Fieldwork and field notes – the time spent engaging in primary data collection, which is predominantly participant observation, and the mode of data collection. Fieldwork is the time spent immersed in the culture under study, while field notes are the written reflections, observations and ideas documented during or soon after fieldwork. 5
• Participant observation – the main method of data collection in ethnography involves the researcher participating as a member of the community or culture, to gain first-hand experience of daily life in the research setting. 5
• An emic perspective – ethnography seeks to understand the worldview of the participant; it thus follows that the researcher can have an emic perspective (insider) or an etic perspective (outsider). This is not a binary category. Rather, researchers might be considered on a continuum, from emic to etic 6 (see Chapter 28 for an overview of insider and outsider research), and therefore reflexivity (Chapter 30) and researcher positionality (Chapter 28) are important elements of the research process . Implementing ‘insider’ ethnography: lessons from the Public Conversations about HIV/AIDS  project in rural South Africa describes an ethnography project involving insider community members and outsider investigators reflecting on the advantages and challenges of this approach. 7
• Thick description – the researcher creates detailed observational field notes with references to the social actions and behaviours of participants. The field notes include anecdotes, observations about the language used and quotes to illustrate the activities of the cultural group being observed. The researcher then integrates theoretical frameworks to help create meaning for the observations. 8
• Holism – ethnography focuses on studying all aspects of a culture, including religious practices, politics, institutions, family structures and cultural traditions. Using the analogy of the structure of the human body, Bronislaw Malinowski, one of the founders of the functionalist school of anthropology, described survey research as the skeleton and ethnography as the flesh and blood. 4

How long researchers spend conducting observations in the field depends on the research question and context. For example, in research to observe and characterise the behaviours and processes of antimicrobial decision-making in two surgical units of an acute hospital setting, researchers spent 58 hours in participant observation at three points of care: pre-admission clinic, surgery and on the ward following surgery. These three points of care were chosen as key moments in the patient’s experience of surgery. The observations were conducted in an acute hospital where medical practice is process-driven and protocol-driven. Hence, it did not take extensive time to observe the typical process and protocol in this setting. Researchers used an observation audit sheet (see Chapter 15) and informed participants that the study was focused on clinical decision-making, rather than specifically antimicrobial prescribing. This was done to minimise the ‘Hawthorne effect’, whereby people are said to change their behaviour because they know they are being observed. Following participant observations, six semi-structured interviews were conducted with two surgeons and four anaesthetists to clarify and discuss the findings of the observations. Interview data were analysed thematically, using inductive and deductive coding. 9

In contrast, an ethnographic study of homecare workers supporting people living with dementia involved 100 hours of participant observations of 16 homecare workers who were supporting 17 people living with dementia. Interviews were conducted with 82 people, including people living with dementia, family carers, homecare managers and support staff, homecare workers, and health and social care professionals. 10

Advantages and challenges of ethnography

The immersive approach to ethnography enables a nuanced understanding of the cultural group under study. Unlike other research designs, the prolonged engagement with the research setting provides an opportunity to refine and iterate research questions leading to a deeper understanding of the phenomenon. Participant observation provides a first hand of the behaviours and interactions of people within a cultural group which can be triangulated with interviews and documents to increase the rigour of the research. 9

There are many challenges in conducting ethnographic research. The time required to undertake ethnographic fieldwork can range from short sessions of observations over months or years, to the researcher living in the community for a period of time. The resources and time required may be substantial. When a researcher is embedded within a community, their departure can cause anxiety and distress for both the researcher and the community members. This experience was described by Paolo Franco, who spent 18 months conducting fieldwork in a retirement village, as a volunteer technology supporter for the residents. Franco described how the participants became dependent on his technology service as well as socially and emotionally connected to him as the researcher. To mitigate problems occurring with a researcher withdraws from a research setting, the researcher should let participants know as early as possible about their estimated time in the community, and should have a plan for their exit. 11

Another key challenge in ethnography is gaining access to ‘the field’ and enlisting the support of gatekeepers. Careful planning and engagement are required to ensure communication channels are open and positive relationships are established. Managing ethical conduct is another important consideration in ethnography. Researchers need to consider how much they will disclose to participants about the purpose of the research, and whether they will be covert (undercover) or overt (open and transparent) in their approach to fieldwork. For the most part, researchers are overt about their research, hoping that participants will ‘forget’ that they are being studied and will revert to natural behaviours. 5

Table 9.1 provides two examples of ethnography from health and social care.

Table 9.1. Ethnographic examples

Ethnography focuses on understanding culture and the behaviours, experiences and meanings at the group level. The main method of data collection is participant observation, which can be combined with interviews, focus groups and field notes to inform interpretations of the research topic.

• Reeves S, Kuper A, Hodges BD. Qualitative research methodologies: ethnography. BMJ . 2008;337:a1020. doi:10.1136/bmj.a1020
• Hudelson PM. Culture and quality: an anthropological perspective. Int J Qual Health Care . 2004;16(5):345-346. doi:10.1093/intqhc/mzh076
• Strudwick RM. Ethnographic research in healthcare – patients and service users as participants. Disabil Rehabil . 2020;43(22): 3271-327. doi:10.1080/09638288.2020.1741695
• Reeves S, Peller J, Goldman J, Kitto S. Ethnography in qualitative educational research: AMEE Guide No. 80. Med Teach . 2013;35(8):e1365-e1379. doi:10.3109/0142159X.2013.804977
• O’Reilly K, Bone JH. Key Concepts in Ethnography . The SAGE Key Concepts Series. SAGE; 2009.
• Eriksson P, Kovalainen A. Qualitative Methods in Business Research . SAGE; 2008.
• Angotti N, Sennott C. Implementing ‘insider’ ethnography: lessons from the Public Conversations about HIV/AIDS project in rural South Africa. Qual Res . 2015;15(4):437-453. doi:10.1177/1468794114543402
• Clark L, Chevrette R. Thick Description. In: Matthes J, Davis CS, Potter RE, eds. The International Encyclopedia of Communication Research Methods : John Wiley & Sons; 2017.
• Jackson J. Ethnography. In: Hua Z, ed. Research Methods in Intercultural Communication . John Wiley & Sons;  2015.
• Leverton M, Burton A, Beresford-Dent J, et al. Supporting independence at home for people living with dementia: a qualitative ethnographic study of homecare. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol . 2021;56(12):2323-2336. doi:10.1007/s00127-021-02084-y
• Franco P, Yang YN. Existing fieldwork ‘with grace’: reflections on the unintended consequences of participant observation and researcher-participant relationships. Qualitative Market Research . 2021;24(3):358-374. doi:10.1108/QMR-07-2020-0094
• Johnson EK. The costs of care: an ethnography of care work in residential homes for older people. Sociol Health Illn . 2023;45(1):54-69. doi:10.1111/1467-9566.13546
• Kitson C, Haines M, O’Byrne P. Understanding the perspectives of women who use intravenous drugs and are experiencing homelessness in an urban centre in Canada: an analysis of ethnographic data. Glob Qual Nurs Res . Published online March 20, 2022. doi:10.1177/23333936221080935

Qualitative Research – a practical guide for health and social care researchers and practitioners Copyright © 2023 by Darshini Ayton is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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The Ultimate Guide to Qualitative Research - Part 1: The Basics

• Introduction and overview
• What is qualitative research?
• What is qualitative data?
• Examples of qualitative data
• Qualitative vs. quantitative research
• Mixed methods
• Qualitative research preparation
• Theoretical perspective
• Theoretical framework
• Literature reviews
• Research question
• Conceptual framework
• Conceptual vs. theoretical framework
• Data collection
• Qualitative research methods
• Focus groups
• Observational research
• Case studies
• Introduction

Defining ethnographic research

What are the methods in ethnographic research, how do i conduct an ethnography.

• Ethical considerations
• Confidentiality and privacy
• Power dynamics
• Reflexivity

What is ethnographic research?

An ethnographic study is one of the most ambitious endeavors a researcher can pursue in qualitative research . It involves using several ethnographic methods to observe and describe social life, social relations, or human society as a whole. Time-consuming and arduous as the data collection and data analysis might be, conducting an ethnography can be one of the most rewarding challenges in cultural anthropology, social anthropology, and similar qualitative research areas.

Let's look at the fundamentals of ethnographic research, examples of ethnographic studies, and the fundamentals of ethnography as a qualitative research method.

"Culture" is an ambiguous term that resists an easy definition. What defines a culture? What takes place inside a culture? What cultures does a particular individual belong to? Who decides who belongs to any specific culture?

Even within a particular context, there are several layers of cultures. Take the United States, for example. Given how diverse and as big as it is, how can one define American culture in as brief an explanation as possible? What are the different social groups within this one country, and how do those groups interact with each other?

Quantitative research is often incapable of capturing such detail, especially because it is extremely difficult to adequately capture a culture in quantitative terms. As a result, researchers often conduct traditional ethnographic research when they want to understand a culture. A credible, written account of a social group is challenging to produce. It requires looking at participant experiences, interviews , focus groups , and document collection, which are different ways to collect data for ethnographic research.

Ethnography belongs squarely in the realm of observational research . In other words, writing culture and cultural critique cannot be based on experiments performed in controlled settings. Ethnography aims to provide an immersive experience in a culture for audiences who are unfamiliar with it. In that case, the researcher must observe the intricate dimensions of social interaction in its natural environment. In ethnographic research, this observation is active and involves being part of the culture to understand the dimensions of cultural norms from the inside.

That said, even observation alone cannot capture concepts such as social relationships or cultural practices. Researchers conducting ethnographic studies acknowledge that simply observing and describing actions are insufficient to grasp social interaction fully. The concept of thick description, or the description of perspectives and beliefs informing those actions in addition to the actions themselves, guides the use of various methods to capture social phenomena from multiple angles.

What is the purpose of ethnographic research?

Ethnographic studies are heavily used in social and cultural anthropology disciplines to generate and expand theory. Outside of anthropology, the insights uncovered by ethnography help to propose or develop theories that can be verified by further qualitative or quantitative research within the social and human sciences.

In simple terms, ethnographic studies relate what a culture is to audiences who are otherwise unfamiliar outsiders. Armed with this understanding, researchers can illustrate and persuade audiences about patterns that emerge from a community or group of people. These patterns are essential to generating theory and pioneering work.

What are examples of ethnographic research?

Ethnographic research aims to reach a deep understanding of various socially-constructed topics, including:

• Rituals and other cultural practices in everyday life
• Social interaction among people of different cultures
• People's interactions with their natural environment
• Creation of and tensions in social relationships

Ethnography as a qualitative method is common in social and cultural anthropology and any scholarly discipline concerned with social interaction. The traditional role of ethnography is to inform scholars interested in cultures they wouldn't otherwise have contact or experience with. Various topics that have been explored by such research with ethnography include:

• health care workers interacting with patients
• teachers and students constructing classroom dialogue
• workplace relations between employees and managers
• experiences of refugees in conflict zones

Other disciplines, especially in the social sciences, employ ethnographic research methods for varied reasons, including understanding:

• effective teaching practices
• socialization processes
• intercultural cohesiveness
• company-customer relations

The range of inquiries that ethnography can answer is vast, highlighting the importance of ethnographic methods in studies where the researcher seeks a deep understanding of a particular topic.

Even within anthropology, there is a lack of consensus on the particular processes for conducting research through ethnography. Interaction among people is unpredictable to the extent that the researcher might encounter unexpected issues with research participants not foreseen at the outset of a study. Because no observational research can be conducted in a fully controlled setting, it is a challenge to define an exact process for an ethnography beyond the general principles guiding an ethnographic approach.

In broad terms, ethnographic data collection methods are varied. Still, all such methods carry the assumption that a single research method cannot fully capture a thorough understanding of a cultural phenomenon. A systematic study that employs ethnographic research methods collects data from observations, participant observations, and interviews . The researchers' reflections also contribute to the body of data since personal experiences are essential to understanding the unfolding ethnography.

Participant observation

At the core of field research is a method called participant observation . Scholars in contemporary ethnography have long acknowledged the importance of active participation in understanding cultural life. This method allows the researcher to experience activities and interactions alongside participants to establish an understanding they wouldn't otherwise achieve by observing from afar. In active participant observation, the ethnographic researcher takes field notes of what they see and experience. They are essential during fieldwork as they create a record that the researcher can look at later on to structure their analysis and recall crucial developments useful to data analysis .

During participant observation, the researcher may also collect other forms of data, including photographs and audio and video recordings . Sensory data is beneficial to ethnography because it helps the researcher recall essential experiences with vivid detail and provides potentially abundant supporting evidence for the arguments in their findings.

Interviews and focus groups

Participant observation provides data for seeing what people say and do in their natural environment. However, observation has its limits for capturing what people think and believe. As a result, an ethnographic researcher conducts interviews to follow up on what they saw in fieldwork with research participants.

A common type of interview in an ethnography is the stimulated recall interview. In a stimulated recall interview, research participants are asked questions about the events the researcher observed. These questions help research participants remember past experiences while providing the researcher with their way of thinking about those experiences.

A focus group involves interactions between the researcher and multiple research participants. Suppose the researcher is interested in the interpersonal dynamics between research participants. In that case, they might consider conducting focus groups to elicit interactions that are markedly different from one-on-one exchanges between a single research participant and the researcher. Interviews and focus groups also help uncover insights otherwise unfamiliar to the researcher, who can then use those insights to guide their theoretical understanding and further data collection .

Document collection

Documents often make up an essential aspect of cultural practices. Think about these examples:

• student homework
• medical records
• newspaper articles
• informational posters

The visual elements uncovered during an ethnography are potentially valuable to theoretical insights, and a researcher might find it important to incorporate documents in their project data.

Reflections

In any ethnography, the researcher is the main instrument of data collection. Their thoughts and beliefs are consequential to the data analysis in that any theoretical insights are filtered by their interpretations . As a result, a researcher should take field notes during participant observation and reflection notes about any connections between what they saw and what it might mean for generating theory during data analysis.

As with taking field notes, a researcher might not remember all the different things that transpire during an ethnography without being able to refer to some sort of record later on. More importantly, reflecting on theory during participant observation may be challenging. A useful practice involves sitting down after observations or interviews and writing down potential theoretical insights that come to mind.

Reflections guide participant observations during an ethnography and theoretical analysis afterward. They point the researcher toward phenomena that are most relevant to theory and guide discussion of that theory when the time comes to write a description of their ethnographic study.

Organizing data

With a research approach as complex as ethnography, you will likely collect abundant data that require organization to make the analytical process more efficient. Researchers can use ATLAS.ti to store all their data in a single project. Document groups allow you to categorize data into different types (e.g., text, audio, video), different contexts (e.g., hospital room, doctor's office), or even different dates (e.g., February 17th observation, March 21st observation).

Moreover, researchers can integrate text with multimedia in ATLAS.ti, which is ideal for analyzing interviews, because you can look at transcripts and their video or audio recordings simultaneously. This is a valuable feature in ethnographic studies examining how people speak and what they say. Photos and other visual documents can also easily be incorporated and analyzed, adding further valuable dimensions to your research.

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Now that we have established a foundational understanding of the various methods associated with ethnography, let's look at what an ethnographic approach to research might look like.

Defining your research questions

As with any research study, ethnographic studies begin when researchers want to know more about something unfamiliar. Do you want to understand how a particular group of people interact with their natural environment? What about how group members decide on a social structure? How is daily life affected by changing economic conditions over a long period of time?

Ethnographic research may also be appropriate for conducting a comparative study of multiple cultures. For example, consider the different groups of soccer fans in several parts of the world: fans in South America might act differently from fans in Europe or Asia. Teaching and learning in high school are bound to look different than teaching and learning in university settings. Emergency room medicine and hospice care have distinct purposes that affect the nature of interactions between doctors and patients.

Whatever the inquiry, the researcher benefits from defining a focus for their ethnography. A clear research question can help the researcher narrow their field of perception during participant observation . Suppose the research question has to do with doctor-patient interactions. In that case, the ethnographer can lend more focus to those conversations and less emphasis on ancillary developments within their research context. With a more specific view, they can examine how doctors speak to their patients while being less concerned about the hospital executives in earshot or the orderlies passing by unless and until they are relevant to the research inquiry.

Choosing theoretical perspectives

To further narrow the focus of the ethnography, a theoretical lens can direct the ethnographer toward aspects relevant to theory. Continuing with the example regarding doctor-patient interactions, let's imagine that the ethnographic study explores the role of reassuring language in situations regarding dire medical conditions. Are there relevant theories about what people can say to give peace of mind to others?

Typically, theories in qualitative research consist of a framework with discrete indicators you can use to organize knowledge. For example, let's suppose that there exists a concept of reassurance that can be broken down like this:

empathy - understanding and affirming other people's emotions evidence - providing examples of favorable results in similar situations responsiveness - actively listening to and validating others' concerns

With this sort of theory in mind, an ethnography can focus on listening for instances of these particular indicators during participant observation and recording these examples in field notes . Naturally, a theory is more credible if it's grounded in previous research.

Entering ethnographic fieldwork

The next step is to choose an appropriate and accessible context for your ethnography. Ethics are an important part of contemporary research in the social sciences, requiring permission from potential participants to observe and interact with them for research purposes.

Before any meaningful data collection, make sure to obtain informed consent from the research participants you are studying. Essentially, this involves receiving permission from your participants to document what they say and do after explaining the purpose of your study and the rights they have while participating in your ethnography.

Ethnographic collection of data

With a context and theory in mind, it's now time to conduct your ethnography. In general terms, this means entering the field and capturing as much rich data relevant to your research question as possible.

Good ethnographic practice relies on pursuing multiple research methods to capture data. Participant observation can help you document what people say and do, but good ethnographies also capture what people believe about their everyday actions.

However, the research method most associated with ethnographic research is note-taking. Field notes capture the researcher's personal experience with the culture they observe, which is necessary to fully understand the captured data. With the ethnographer as the main instrument of data collection, readers of ethnographic studies can attain a sense of the possible ways they can view cultures through the researcher's eyes.

Moreover, ethnography relies on rapport with research participants. Ethnographers who want to conduct interviews later will benefit from establishing good relationships with their research participants. As a result, more involved interactions during fieldwork can generate deeper and richer data for your study.

Considerations during fieldwork

It's important to remember that the ethnographer's presence can affect how people behave. Especially in participant observation, your interactions with research participants will directly influence what they do in their daily lives. Even our natural environment is affected by what we do in it. When writing your reflections, qualifying your interactions in the field with a sufficient accounting of how your presence might change what others say and do is important.

There are also ethical questions about what to document and how to use the resulting data afterward. Within anthropology, there are issues of representing cultural groups with respect and ensuring you have their permission to use what you observe and collect from the field. Top scholarly journals and academic conferences also want to know how you observed research ethics during fieldwork, so it is necessary to use your reflection memos to document your ethics practices in addition to the data you collect.

Further development in ethnographic fieldwork

Unexpected issues in field research , especially long-term fieldwork, can help you refine your theoretical framework . Returning to the example of the concept of reassurance, you might observe a doctor's explanation of a medical procedure and find that it's similar to providing evidence. Still, it does not fully align with the established theory. In other words, studying real-world episodes of medical explanations may contribute novel insights about reassurance, helping you further develop your focus in subsequent observations.

As you continue your ethnography, refining the scope of your theoretical perspective helps you more easily gather observational data relevant to your research inquiry and thus provide a fully developed framework for your data.

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Qualitative study design: Ethnography

• Qualitative study design
• Phenomenology
• Grounded theory

Ethnography

• Narrative inquiry
• Action research
• Case Studies
• Field research
• Focus groups
• Observation
• Surveys & questionnaires
• Study Designs Home

To describe the characteristics of a particular culture/ethnographic group. 

Ethnography is the study of culture (Taylor & Francis, 2013) it is in many ways similar to anthropology; this being the study of human societies and cultures. 

Exploration and data collection can occur in either an emic or etic approach. Emic meaning that the observation happens from within the culture. Etic meaning the observation is external looking in (Taylor et al., 2006) 

Used to explore questions relating to the understanding of a certain group's beliefs, values, practices and how they adapt to change. (Taylor & Francis, 2013) 

Ethnographic studies can be about identifying inequalities. For example exploring racial and cultural aspects of how a cultural group functions and the rules that guide behaviours. (Taylor & Francis, 2013) 

One form of ethnography is an auto-ethnography which involves exploration of the self as the topic being explored. 

The researcher places themselves as a ‘participant observer’ amidst the culture. 

The setting is a very important consideration within ethnographic studies as the exploration of the people and their behaviours must be within the context of that cultural situation. 

Methods used include, but are not limited to: observation, interviews, focus groups, review of documentary evidence and keeping field notes. (Taylor & Francis, 2013) 

Steps involved include:  

Identify the culture to be studied  

Identify the significant variables within the culture 

Review existing literature 

Gain entrance 

Immerse within the culture or observe the culture 

Acquire the informants 

Gather data 

Describe the culture 

Develop theories. 

(Taylor & Francis, 2013) 

Direct insight into the lives and experiences of the people and the group of interest. 

Allows for rich detailed data to be collected (Howitt, 2019). 

Provides an opportunity for researchers to uncover new unknown ways of thinking. Researchers may become aware of behaviors, trends and beliefs that are present within one culture although these may be previously unknown to other cultures. This enables new opportunities for improved ways of viewing and solving issues within other cultures.   

Limitations

Biases can be apparent because a researcher will always bring with them their own culture and own perspective which may impact their interpretations of the experiences they observe within this different culture. 

Genuine co-operation and engagement from the people of interest may not always be forthcoming and rapport might be difficult to establish. 

There can be a greater cost involved for this study type than others. Due to the need for transport, accommodation and researcher time that is spent in the field among the participants. This can be greater than what would be spent in a different research methodology where the engagement may be limited to a laboratory or shorter duration. 

Certain logistics can pose challenges for this type of research approach, such as travelling and gaining access to communities depending on their unique cultural values, for example there are many indigenous societies that only permit people of certain genders to have access. 

As the setting may be very specific to a particular group or community of people it may not be possible to generalise and apply the findings very broadly. 

Researchers need to be aware of the impact that their presence can have on the behaviours of the population they are investigating. 

The “Hawthorne effect” can be a limitation to observing genuine behaviours within a group. This is a situation founded by Dickson and Roethlisberger in 1966 when they reviewed previous experiments conducted at the Hawthorne factory. These experiments observed the ways that different influences, such as the level of lighting, impacted on the efficiency of factory workers. Their re-examination demonstrated that participants can behave differently to what they usually would when they are aware that they are being studied or recorded. As such, the methods selected need to counteract this effect for all study types, but for ethnographic studies especially, as authenticity of the cultural experience is quite important to ethnographic methodology. 

Example questions

What expectations and beliefs do people within specific communities hold about their healthcare options? 

What practices are being undertaken by healthcare professionals in specific settings and are these consistent with best practice? 

What barriers are certain communities experiencing in relation to different healthcare access? 

Are people within a specific community receiving the appropriate information and communication about aspects of their health for them to then make informed educated decisions? 

Example studies

Coughlin, C. (n.d.). An ethnographic study of main events during hospitalisation: perceptions of nurses and patients . Journal of Clinical Nursing, 22(15–16), 2327–2337.  

Molloy, L., Walker, K., Lakeman, R., & Lees, D. (2019). Mental Health Nursing Practice and Indigenous Australians: A Multi-Sited Ethnography. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 40(1), 21–27. 

Rainsford, S., Phillips, C. B., Glasgow, N. J., MacLeod, R. D., & Wiles, R. B. (2018). The ‘safe death’: An ethnographic study exploring the perspectives of rural palliative care patients and family caregivers. Palliative Medicine, 32(10), 1575–1583. 

Newnham, E., McKellar, L., & Pincombe, J. (2017). ‘It’s your body, but…’ Mixed messages in childbirth education: Findings from a hospital ethnography. Midwifery, 55, 53–59 

King, P. (2019). The woven self: An auto-ethnography of cultural disruption and connectedness . International Perspectives in Psychology: Research, Practice, Consultation, 8(3), 107–123.  

Howitt, D. (2019). Introduction to qualitative research methods in psychology: putting theory into practice. Pearson Education.

Taylor, B. J., & Francis, K. (2013). Qualitative research in the health sciences: methodologies, methods and processes: Routledge.

Taylor, B. J., Kermode, S., & Roberts, K. L. (2006). Research in nursing and health care: creating evidence for practice (Third edition. ed.): Thomson. 

O’Connor, S. J. (2011). Context is everything: The role of auto‐ethnography, reflexivity and self‐critique in establishing the credibility of qualitative research findings. European Journal of Cancer Care, 20(4), 421–423. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2354.2011.01261.x 

Dickson, W. J & Roethlisberger, F. J., (1966) Counseling in an organization: a sequel to the Hawthorne researches. 1898-1974 & Western Electric Company (U.S.) Division of Research, Graduate School of Business Administration, Harvard University, Boston   

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Ethnography is a qualitative method for collecting data often used in the social and behavioral sciences.  Data are collected through observations and interviews, which are then used to draw conclusions about how societies and individuals function. Ethnographers observe life as it happens instead of trying to manipulate it in a lab.  Because of the unpredictability of life, ethnographers often find is challenging to nail down their projects in a protocol for the Board to review.  Nevertheless, the Board needs a good explanation of a study in order to approve it.  Helping the Board to understand the parameters of the study, the situations in which the participants will be contacted and will participate, and the risks involved will allow them to approve studies where some flexibility is needed. 

The following sections generalize typical situations in an ethnographic study. However, your study may not fit these models exactly, so please  contact  our staff if you have questions about what is appropriate, etc. The Board expects you to interact with your participants in a way that is natural, polite, and culturally appropriate. D iscuss the cultural context and how that shapes your methodology, demonstrating that you are aware of your participants' particular needs and sensitive to the way that they navigate their world.  

Interviews and observations are common methods for data collection in an ethnographic study; please see Interviews and Observations for more information. 

As an ethnographer becomes integrated in a community, he or she will talk to many people in order to become familiar with their way of life and to refine the research ideas. Not everyone that an ethnographer interacts with is necessarily a  participant in the research study . Participation depends on the type of information that is collected and how the data are recorded. If you are recording information that is  specific to a person  and about that  person’s experiences and opinions , and if that information can be  identified with a specific person (whether anonymous or not), that person becomes a participant in the study. For example, talking to an individual on the bus about general bus policies and atmosphere would not qualify the conversation as part of the human subjects aspect of your research.  Talking to that same individual about their specific experiences as a passenger on the bus and recording that information in your notes qualifies that individual as a participant in the study. Depending on whether you gather identifying information about the person and the potential to harm the person will determine what level of consent information you should provide and how it should be documented. Understanding when a person becomes a participant will help you to understand when you should obtain consent from that person or when an interaction can be defined as just a casual conversation.  For specific examples of when a casual conversation becomes an interview, please see  Interviews  for more information.     

Ethnographers are often involved with their participants on a very intimate level and can collect sensitive data about them, thus it is important to recognize areas and situations that may be risky for participants and develop procedures for reducing  risk . Participants in ethnographic studies may be at risk for legal, social, economic, psychological, and physical harms. A well-designed  consent process  can be an easy way to reduce risk in a study. For participants where consent has limitations (i.e.  children ,  prisoners , other  vulnerable participants ), additional requirements may be made in order to facilitate the consent process, such as providing a minor with an assent form and obtaining parental consent (though it may be necessary to modify this process so that it is culturally appropriate). Some participants may be  highly sensitive to risk  because of who they are and the situation in which they live and you may need to make additional accommodations for participants where the potential for harm is high. Often a participant’s potential for harm doesn’t end when your interaction is over; protecting the materials you collect will continue to protect your participants from harm.  Loss of confidentiality  is a risk that participants may face when participating in an ethnographic study; in some cases, participants may not be interested in keeping their information confidential but it is important to maintain a clear dialog with participants so that they understand the implications of sharing their data with you. Identifying the needs of your participants and modifying your approach in order to accommodate those needs will help to protect participants from incurring harm as a result of participating in your study.

Before you include participants in your study, you will need to identify who is eligible to participate. Often in ethnographic studies it is important to integrate into the community and tap into the community’s network in order to identify potential participants. You may use word-of-mouth methods to reach your participants or more formal methods such as advertisements, flyers, emails, phone calls, etc (please include samples of your recruitment materials with your study). When you describe your procedures in your protocol, it is important to include information about how you will navigate the community you will study and access eligible participants.

The consent process begins as soon as you share information about the study, so it is important that when you contact participants, you are providing them with accurate information about participating in the study. Participants should know early on in the process that you are researcher and you are asking them to participate in a study, and you shouldn’t provide information that is misleading or inappropriately enticing. For further guidance on recruiting participants, see  Participant Recruitment .

The consent process outlined in the  Basic Consent  section describes the baseline expectation for obtaining consent from participants, as described in the  federal regulations . However, this scenario does not always fit every research study nor is it adequate for providing informed consent to all participants, and there is some flexibility in modifying the informed consent process. The Oral Consent section describes how to conduct an oral consent procedure, which modifies the consent procedure to accommodate participants where presenting a written consent form would be inappropriate. If you feel that it is necessary to provide your participants with a modified informed consent process, it is important that you provide a complete and accurate description of the process, and provide justification as to why the process is necessary and will provide the best informed consent opportunity for your participants. Including information about cultural norms, language issues, and other important factors will help the Board to understand your population and why it is necessary to approach the population in the manner in which you recommend. As you develop your procedure, it is important that you consider not only the informed consent meeting, but also the recruitment process and how you will document consent. 

• Participant Recruitment
• Oral Consent
• Consent Templates
• Observations
• Risks-Sensitive Populations

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Ethnography in qualitative educational research: AMEE Guide No. 80

Affiliation.

• 1 Center for Innovation in Interprofessional Education, University of California, 520 Parnassus Avenue, CL112 San Francisco, CA 94143, USA. [email protected]
• PMID: 23808715
• DOI: 10.3109/0142159X.2013.804977

Ethnography is a type of qualitative research that gathers observations, interviews and documentary data to produce detailed and comprehensive accounts of different social phenomena. The use of ethnographic research in medical education has produced a number of insightful accounts into its role, functions and difficulties in the preparation of medical students for clinical practice. This AMEE Guide offers an introduction to ethnography - its history, its differing forms, its role in medical education and its practical application. Specifically, the Guide initially outlines the main characteristics of ethnography: describing its origins, outlining its varying forms and discussing its use of theory. It also explores the role, contribution and limitations of ethnographic work undertaken in a medical education context. In addition, the Guide goes on to offer a range of ideas, methods, tools and techniques needed to undertake an ethnographic study. In doing so it discusses its conceptual, methodological, ethical and practice challenges (e.g. demands of recording the complexity of social action, the unpredictability of data collection activities). Finally, the Guide provides a series of final thoughts and ideas for future engagement with ethnography in medical education. This Guide is aimed for those interested in understanding ethnography to develop their evaluative skills when reading such work. It is also aimed at those interested in considering the use of ethnographic methods in their own research work.

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A scoping review of the use of ethnographic approaches in implementation research and recommendations for reporting

Alex k gertner.

1 Department of Health Policy and Management, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA

Joshua Franklin

2 Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA

Isabel Roth

3 Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Program on Integrative Medicine, UNC School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC, USA

Gracelyn H Cruden

4 Oregon Social Learning Center, Eugene, OR, USA

Amber D Haley

Erin p finley.

5 VA Center for the Study of Healthcare Innovation, Implementation & Policy, VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, CA, USA

Alison B Hamilton

6 Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA

Lawrence A Palinkas

7 Department of Children, Youth and Families, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA

Byron J Powell

8 Brown School and School of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA

Associated Data

Supplemental material, sj-pdf-1-irp-10.1177_2633489521992743 for A scoping review of the use of ethnographic approaches in implementation research and recommendations for reporting by Alex K Gertner, Joshua Franklin, Isabel Roth, Gracelyn H Cruden, Amber D Haley, Erin P Finley, Alison B Hamilton, Lawrence A Palinkas and Byron J Powell in Implementation Research and Practice

Background:

Researchers have argued for the value of ethnographic approaches to implementation science (IS). The contested meanings of ethnography pose challenges and possibilities to its use in IS. The goal of this study was to identify sources of commonality and variation, and to distill a set of recommendations for reporting ethnographic approaches in IS.

We included in our scoping review English-language academic journal articles meeting two criteria: (1) IS articles in the healthcare field and (2) articles that described their approach as ethnographic. In March 2019, we implemented our search criteria in four academic databases and one academic journal. Abstracts were screened for inclusion by at least two authors. We iteratively develop a codebook for full-text analysis and double-coded included articles. We summarized the findings and developed reporting recommendations through discussion.

Of the 210 articles whose abstracts were screened, 73 were included in full-text analysis. The number of articles increased in recent years. Ethnographic approaches were used within a wide variety of theoretical approaches and research designs. Articles primarily described using interviews and observational methods as part of their ethnographic approaches, though numerous other methods were also employed. The most cited rationales for using ethnographic approaches were to capture context-specific phenomena, understand insiders’ perspective, and study complex interactions. In reporting on ethnographic approaches, we recommend that researchers provide information on researcher training and position, reflect on researchers’ positionality, describe observational methods in detail, and report results from all the methods used.

Conclusion:

The number of IS studies using ethnography has increased in recent years. Ethnography holds great potential for contributing further to IS, particularly to studying implementation strategy mechanisms and understanding complex adaptive systems.

Plain language summary:

Researchers have proposed that ethnographic methods may be valuable to implementation research and practice. Ethnographic approaches have their roots in the field of anthropology, but they are now used in many fields. These approaches often involve a researcher spending time in “real-world” settings, conducting interviews and observation to understand a group of people. That said, researchers disagree on the meaning of ethnography, which presents a challenge to its use in implementation science (IS). We searched for articles in the field of IS that described their methods as ethnographic. We then reviewed the articles, looking for similarities and differences in how and why ethnographic approaches were used. Many of these articles said they used ethnographic methods because they were interested in issues like context, research participants’ views, and complex interactions. We found a large amount of variation in how ethnographic methods were used. We developed recommendations for describing ethnographic methods in a way that readers can clearly understand. We also made several observations of the value ethnographic approaches can bring to IS. Ethnographic methods may be especially useful to studying unplanned and unexpected changes that take place during implementation. These recommendations and observations could be helpful to implementation researchers wishing to use ethnographic methods.

The field of IS makes use of research methods and frameworks from various scholarly traditions ( Bauer et al., 2015 ; NIH Fogarty International Center, 2018 ). The field’s inclusive methodological ethos facilitates innovation and allows implementation researchers to draw on a diverse research toolset ( Bauer et al., 2015 ; Proctor et al., 2009 ). However, this methodological breadth can also present a challenge to the interpretation of research, particularly when there is a lack of agreement on common meanings and standards in the use of approaches ( Newhouse et al., 2013 ).

In recent years, researchers have argued for the value of ethnographic approaches in IS. Ethnography distinguishes itself from other approaches in health research by its deep engagement in a small number of cases to produce highly detailed data, its focus on human interaction in everyday environments to capture data outside of formal research processes, and its emphasis on building relationships with participants to access insiders’ perspectives, referred to as the “emic” viewpoint ( Reeves et al., 2008 ). These features are potentially well suited to delineating complex implementation processes, revealing contextual factors that affect implementation, and incorporating the perspectives of end-users in implementation, among other benefits ( Baumbusch et al., 2018 ; Bunce et al., 2014 ; Cohen et al., n.d .; Hamilton & Finley, 2020 ; Tumilowicz et al., 2015 ). Implementation researchers have also developed approaches based in ethnography for use in implementation research and practice. Palinkas and Zatzick (2019) developed a rapid approach to clinical ethnography that can be used to understand implementation processes and capture contextual details. Finley and colleagues (2018) proposed a process of periodic reflections based in ethnography for timely development of insights into implementation processes in dynamic contexts. Proposals for the use of ethnographic approaches have also been made more broadly in clinical and healthcare research ( Greenhalgh & Swinglehurst, 2011 ; Huby et al., 2007 ; Morgan-Trimmer & Wood, 2016 ; Savage, 2000 ).

Despite the potential value of ethnographic approaches to IS, differing ideas of what ethnography means present a challenge to their use. Because the meaning of ethnography can vary, it can be difficult to interpret what is meant by use of the terms “ethnography” or “ethnographic” in IS work, and thus to evaluate the rigor and reliability of the approach taken. Modern ethnographic approaches have their roots in anthropology, but what is meant by “ethnography” is contested across and within disciplines ( Agar, 2006 ; Brink & Edgecombe, 2003 ; Hammersley, 2018 ; O’Reilly, 2012 ). Ethnography may refer to a method, such as participant observation, or set of methods, sometimes including quantitative methods. However, it may also be understood as a process involving researcher reflexivity, an epistemological orientation emphasizing interlocutors’ perspectives, or a particular research product ( Agar, 2006 ; Clifford & Marcus, 1986 ; Hammersley, 2018 ; O’Reilly, 2012 ).

Given the diverse notions of ethnography, implementation researchers may employ ethnography in different ways. The objective of this scoping review is to examine the uses of ethnography in implementation research. The goal of this study was to identify sources of commonality and variation and distill a set of recommendations for reporting ethnographic approaches in IS.

Our research team included scholars with expertise in ethnographic methods and IS, including four trained anthropologists (EPF, JF, ABH, LAP). We chose to undertake a scoping review because of the exploratory nature of our research question. We did not seek to assess the quality of studies, as is typically done in systematic reviews. We followed the approach to scoping reviews delineated by Levac and colleagues (2010) . Our primary research questions were as follows: how are ethnographic approaches used in IS, why are they used, and what constitutes ethnographic approaches? In examining what constituted ethnographic approaches, we principally considered what methods were described and how they were used.

Search criteria

We included English-language academic journal articles meeting two criteria: (1) IS articles in the healthcare field and (2) articles that described their approach as ethnographic. For the purposes of conducting searches, we operationalized the first criteria as articles containing the phrases “implementation science,” “implementation research,” “knowledge translation,” or “knowledge to action.” We operationalized the second criteria as articles including variants on “ethnography” (search term: “ethnograph*”) in the title or abstract. In March 2019, we implemented our search criteria in four academic databases: MEDLINE, Web of Science, EMBASE, and ProQuest Health Management. We also conducted a search in the journal Implementation Science for articles that included the term “ethnograph*” anywhere in the article.

Abstract review

Our search produced 210 unique records. Three co-authors (JF, AKG, ADH) screened the abstracts to ensure that they fit our criteria of IS articles in the healthcare field that described their approaches as ethnographic. At this stage, we used Eccles and Mittman’s (2006) definition of implementation research: “the scientific study of methods to promote the systematic uptake of research findings and other evidence-based practices into routine practice” (p. 1). We did not require that articles make explicit reference to the IS field to be considered as implementation research.

We included all articles that described their approach as ethnographic but excluded meta-ethnographies (a method of synthesizing qualitative evidence from multiple studies). We included study protocols in our review. Two co-authors screened every abstract. If there was disagreement between the two co-authors, a third co-author broke the tie. We excluded 92 articles that did not describe their approach as ethnographic, 40 articles that were not considered implementation research, and 5 articles that were not health-related. The excluded articles referenced ethnography and IS, which is why they were captured in our search, but these articles did not characterize their own approaches as ethnographic or did not report on implementation research. After abstract review, 73 unique articles remained for full-text review, of which 21 articles were study protocols (see Appendix 1).

Full text analysis

The 73 included articles were published between 2004 and 2019, with 52 (71%) articles published since 2014. The articles were published across 31 academic journals. The most common journals were Implementation Science, BMC Health Services Research , and Social Science & Medicine .

We iteratively developed a codebook using inductively and deductively developed codes. To understand how ethnographic approaches were used in IS, we coded several article characteristics including characteristics of study design, study objectives, outcome types, and theory, model, or framework (TMF) used ( Nilsen, 2015 ). We coded outcome types as implementation outcomes, service outcomes, and client outcomes following Proctor and colleagues (2011) . We developed a simple schema for characterizing articles’ objectives: (1) developing tools for implementation research; (2) assessing implementation determinants (e.g., context, barriers, and facilitators); and (3) evaluating implementation strategies. Articles could be classified as having more than one of these objectives.

To understand why ethnographic approaches were used, we coded articles’ rationales for use of these approaches. We only coded explicit explanations of why ethnographic approaches were used to minimize subjective inferences. To understand what constituted ethnographic approaches, we documented what methods were used and the descriptions of these methods.

Four co-authors (GHC, JF, AKG, IR) coded the same six articles, iteratively revising codes until there was agreement on coding. The final codes were reviewed by the entire study team. These four co-authors then alternatively paired to double-code each article. Coding pairs first independently coded each article and resolved discrepancies by consensus. Any codes that could not be aligned by paired consensus were resolved by the additional coders. Coders also kept unstructured memos noting observations of interest that were not captured by codes. As such, memos did not produce quantitative results but observations on notable practices and distinctions. After coding, the results were summarized and reviewed by the study team to draw out key insights. Based on these results and reviews of existing recommendations for reporting on the qualitative methods, the study team developed recommendations for clear reporting on ethnographic approaches in IS ( Tong et al., 2007 ).

How are ethnographic approaches used in IS?

To understand how ethnography is deployed in IS, we documented the characteristics of IS articles that used ethnographic approaches. Of the 73 articles included, 32 (44%) articles did not report using a specific TMF ( Table 1 ). The remaining articles cited 27 distinct TMFs, with some using multiple approaches. Prominent IS frameworks were the most frequently employed. The most cited TMFs were the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research (CFIR; Damschroder et al., 2009 ); Promoting Action on Research Implementation in Health Services (PARiHS; Kitson et al., 2008 ); Reach, Effectiveness, Adoption, Implementation, Maintenance (RE-AIM; Glasgow et al., 1999 ); and Diffusion of Innovations ( Rogers, 2003 ).

Characteristics of articles using ethnographic methods in IS.

IS: implementation science; CFIR: Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research; PARiHS: Promoting Action on Research Implementation in Health Services; RE-AIM: Reach, Effectiveness, Adoption, Implementation, Maintenance.

When it came to articles’ objectives, 64 (88%) articles were focused on assessing the determinants of implementation. Some of these articles aimed to better understand contexts in which implementation efforts could take place without seeking to assess a specific intervention. For instance, Charani and colleagues (2017) used observations and interviews to understand how surgical teams made decisions about antibiotic use. Twenty (27%) articles evaluated implementation strategies, nearly all using multi- or mixed-methods approaches. Sax and colleagues (2013) described a protocol for a mixed-methods evaluation of a “work package” of interventions to improve infection control in intensive care units. Eleven (15%) articles developed tools for implementation research. Some of these developed novel methods, as the previously discussed examples led by Palinkas and Zatzick (2019) and Finley and colleagues (2018) . Other articles used ethnographic approaches to elaborate theoretical approaches. For example, Jenkins and colleagues (2016) used an approach involving site visits, meetings, and written communication to develop a framework for guiding community-based knowledge translation. Bardosh (2018) used three rapid ethnographic studies to inductively develop a framework for assessing the effectiveness of interventions aimed at neglected tropical diseases.

Seventy-two (99%) articles included implementation outcomes. Many of these sought to identify barriers and facilitators to implementation of interventions in specific contexts. Some articles identified specific implementation outcomes of interest to them. In their study of an innovation to improve dysphagia care, which employed a mixed-methods approach that included use of an “ethnographic field journal,” Ilott and colleagues (2013) clearly identified “adoption and adaptation” as their primary outcomes of interest. Other articles framed their objectives in terms of capturing a particular point of view or aspect of practice. Dainty and colleagues (2016) used interviews and observation to describe the implementation of a post-cardiac arrest consult team “from the participant perspective.” Boaz and colleagues (2016) examined the roles of patients across several quality improvement projects using interviews, observations, reflective diaries, and document analysis ( Boaz et al., 2016 ). Fifteen (21%) articles included service outcomes. Jacobsen and colleagues (2017) used survey instruments to track person-centeredness of care in nursing homes before and after an educational initiative. Fifteen (21%) articles included client outcomes. Mumtaz and colleagues (2016) described a protocol for evaluating the quality of maternal health services that included interviewing women about their care experiences.

Forty-three articles (59%) reported on multi- or mixed-methods research with 10 (14%) of these reporting on hybrid implementation-effectiveness studies ( Anguera et al., 2018 ; Curran et al., 2012 ). In memos, coders noted that these studies at times employed ethnographic approaches sequentially and at times concurrently with quantitative methods. Some articles reported qualitative and quantitative findings together, while others referenced quantitative findings published separately. Dorsey and colleagues (2015) used a “rapid ethnographic assessment approach” to inform measurements in a subsequent randomized controlled trial of a psychosocial intervention. Clarke and colleagues (2013) drew upon interviews, observations, and document review for process evaluation of a stroke care training intervention. Both articles reported on results of ethnographic approaches separately from quantitative trial results.

Sixty-two (85%) articles described studies in healthcare settings and 22 (30%) in other settings, including homes, places of worship, and social service offices. Sixty-six (90%) articles included clinical providers as participants. Of these, 55 (75%) also included other types of participants, most often administrators and non-clinical staff. Thirty (41%) articles involved patients or their families. In memos, coders noted that articles generally presented settings and participants as planned prior to data collection. By contrast, Shaw and colleagues (2017) described beginning their study of transitional care in a hospital but then following patients into other settings, including patients’ homes, as the study progressed.

Why are ethnographic approaches used?

Thirteen (18%) articles did not provide an explicit rationale for the use of ethnographic approaches ( Table 2 ). For the remaining articles, we grouped rationales for ethnographic approaches into six inductively developed categories, which reflected authors’ stated intent to understand context-specific phenomena (52 articles, 71%); clarify emic (insiders’) perspectives (31 articles, 42%); study complex interactions (28 articles, 38%); examine sociocultural factors (21 articles, 29%); strengthen reliability of findings through use of triangulation (16 articles, 22%); and integrate theoretical models or frameworks (7 articles, 9.6%).

Description of ethnographic methods in IS.

IS: implementation science.

Several studies drew on more than one of these rationales. Bunce and colleagues (2014) discussed the value of an ethnographic approach for process evaluation as “placing the intervention in its historical and social context, ‘being there’ to document the process as it unfolds and as interpreted by its participants” (p. 2). In their study of knowledge translation strategies to improve spinal care, Webster and colleagues (2014) explained that, through an ethnographic approach, “the cultural norms, local context and specific needs of various professionals can be explicated when building an account of how policymakers, clinicians, and hospital administrators interact” (p. 2). Dixon-Woods and colleagues (2012) succinctly explained multiple rationales for their ethnographic approach to studying a patient safety program in British hospitals:

Ethnography enables detailed, contextualized descriptions of behavior and of how people make sense of the situations in which they live and work and, consequently, why their own actions make sense (Hammersley & Atkinson, 2007). Ethnography is an especially useful approach to studying patient safety, as it provides an opportunity to observe firsthand how events are classified and communicated in particular ways, as well as the social, cultural, and organizational influences on such classificatory work ( Bosk, 2003 ; Waring, 2009 ). In particular, ethnography enables insights into how professionals in health care settings account for patient safety issues ( Bosk, 2003 ) in ways that other methods may not detect. (p. 554–555)

Several studies applied ethnographic approaches to reveal processes by which implementation strategies worked or failed to work at specific sites. These studies emphasized the value of ethnography for the study of context and complex systems. Drew and colleagues (2019) used an ethnographic approach to understand divergences in client and implementation outcomes across different hospitals as part of an initiative improve hip and knee replacement surgery in the United Kingdom. McCullough and colleagues (2015) used semi-structured interviews and observations to understand how contextual factors affected differential uptake of evidence-based anticoagulation practices across clinics in a network.

Some studies used ethnographic approaches to mobilize, legitimize, or formalize experiences of researchers and practitioners working in implementation efforts. These studies emphasized the value of ethnography for the study of complex systems and emic perspectives. Reflecting on their role as applied anthropologists working in a program to provide mental health crisis services in New York City, Pope and colleagues (2016) argued that “ethnographically based qualitative research might be used to convert the ‘noise’ of actual implementation process into information with instructive power ( Hohmann & Shear, 2002 ; Rapkin & Trickett, 2005 )” (p. 508). English and colleagues (2011) made a similar proposal as they drew on their own experiences to reflect on why an implementation strategy to improve pediatric hospital services in Kenya produced variable effects. Finley and colleagues (2018) formalized this potential of ethnographic approaches to provide knowledge and insights on implementation efforts as they unfold by developing a procedure for guided discussion.

What constitutes ethnographic approaches?

Articles generally described using a distinct set of methods that constituted their ethnographic approaches, primarily interviews and observation. However, we noted substantial diversity in how methods were described. In particular, the meaning of “ethnographic” was not always articulated.

Sixty-eight (93%) articles used interviews as a part of their methods ( Table 2 ). Forty-five (62%) articles described interviews as semi-structured, four (5.5%) as structured, and one (1.3%) as unstructured. Sixteen (22%) articles described interviews as formal and 14 (19%) as informal. Eleven (15%) articles described using conversations as part of their methods. Seventeen (23%) articles used interviews without describing the type of interview conducted.

In memos, coders noted variation in the level of detail with which articles described interviews or explained how interviews contributed to an ethnographic approach. Sobo and colleagues (2008) used semi-structured interviews as a part of their “focused ethnographic assessment” of an HIV testing intervention for US veterans. They explicitly described what was meant by their “ethnographic” interview approach:

Interviewers adopted techniques designed to elicit information that interviewees themselves deemed important and to expose understandings existing below any official discourse ( Campbell & Gregor, 2004 ). For example, interviewers adopted an “interested listener” rather than a dictatorial role ( Quinn, 2005 , p. 41). They sought to avoid collusive conversational turn-taking and gapfilling in which implicit meanings are assumed to be shared ( Campbell & Gregor, 2004 ). (p. 445)

Sixty-two (85%) articles described using observation as part of their methods. Of these, 20 (27%) described observation as participant, 20 (27%) as non-participant, and 24 (33%) did not specify. As with interviews, coders noted in memos variation in the level of detail with which observational methods were described. In several articles, the only mention of an ethnographic approach was to describe the use of “ethnographic observations” without elaborating on what this meant. By contrast, Latif and colleagues specified the constructs and variables researchers attempted to document through observations in their study of an intervention to improve patient adherence across pharmacies in England. They also provided an explanation of how observation contributed to their ethnographic approach: “Through first-hand observation and direct engagement, organizational ethnography offered an in-depth or ‘thick’ description of the social, through which analysis of the social-cultural and organizing context was possible” (p. 969).

Many articles described use of fieldnotes in conjunction with observation. In all, 60 (82%) articles described using fieldnotes. Some articles merely noted that fieldnotes were used, while others described the contents of fieldnotes and how they were used. In a protocol for the study of the implementation of a federal Canadian mental health strategy, Park and colleagues (2015) described how trained observers would keep fieldnotes of events such as team meetings that would capture contextual factors and personal interactions. They also described how observers and other research team members would reflect on fieldnotes as part of their planned data analysis.

A variety of other methods were also used as part of ethnographic approaches. Forty-three (59%) articles described analyzing documents as part of their methods. These primarily involved reviewing existing documents from study sites, such as written communications and protocols. Twenty-five (34%) studies used focus groups. Other methods were used less frequently. Zobrist and colleagues (2017) used cognitive mapping in their study of young child feeding interventions in Senegal. Patel and colleagues (2014) described a plan to use video ethnography in their study protocol for an initiative to improve cardiovascular risk management in primary care clinics.

Articles generally provided little information on researchers’ training and positionality (role and social position in relation to participants) as part ethnographic approaches. Forty (55%) articles did not provide any description of the researchers involved in ethnographic data collection. Only 12 (16%) of articles mentioned researchers’ training in use of ethnographic methods and relationship to the study’s setting. When descriptions were provided, they were often minimal. By contrast, Dlamini-Simelane and Moyer (2017) detailed Dlamini-Simelane’s participation as an HIV counselor as part of data collection for their study of nurse-led HIV treatment in Swaziland, reflecting on the insights that could be gained in this role.

There was lack of clarity in how long researchers were engaged in data collection. Fifty-six (77%) articles provided some information on study duration. However, there was substantial variation in how duration was reported. Some studies reported the start and end dates of data collection, while others reported number of site visits or hours of observations performed. Of the studies reporting on length of data collection, the shortest period was 2 weeks and the longest was 5 years ( Bunce et al., 2014 ; Dorsey et al., 2015 ).

Coders noted in memos that studies primarily described results from interviews, less often describing results from observational methods, such as descriptions of settings or events. Coders also noted that studies often described results without referencing larger sociohistorical context or reflecting on the positionality of researcher regarding the research subject, in contrast to how ethnographic results are often presented in social science fields. One exception was Dixon-Woods and colleagues’ (2012) study of a program to reduce catheter-related infections in British hospitals. These researchers provided detailed descriptions of how staff responded to the program, placing these reactions within historical context of the British healthcare system.

With regard to analyzing study results, 64 (88%) articles used some form of data coding to identify themes, at times using formal named approaches (e.g., qualitative content analysis, framework analysis, matrix analysis) and at times describing more ad hoc approaches (i.e., developing themes through reading and discussion without a specific or formal process). Studies that did not use data coding either did not explicitly describe an analytic approach or drew on other approaches to the analysis of ethnographic data. In their study of how nurses use research in a pediatric critical care unit, Scott and colleagues employed Fetterman’s two-phase approach to ethnographic analysis involving “making order of data” followed by interpretation ( Fetterman, 1998 ; Scott et al., 2008 ).

Our findings suggest that ethnographic approaches are well-accepted in IS. The number of implementation research articles reporting use of ethnographic approaches has increased substantially in recent years, with many articles published in prominent journals. In addition, the use of ethnographic approaches appears compatible with a wide array of TMFs in IS. Ethnographic approaches can be deployed in a variety of mixed and multi-methods designs, including as a part of hybrid implementation-effectiveness studies.

We found that interviews and observations were the most frequently used methods in the articles we reviewed. However, we noted substantial variation in the detail with which these approaches were described. In some studies, the only mention of ethnography was to describe observations as “ethnographic.” This finding suggests “ethnography” is at times used to legitimize observational methods in IS. We also found a few articles reported using informal interviews and conversations. Such informal interactions could reveal valuable insights that are not as easily appreciated in formal interviews.

Ethnographic approaches were primarily used to assess implementation outcomes in healthcare settings. A minority of articles reported data collection with patients or in community settings. This finding is not surprising given that implementation efforts are typically aimed at clinical professionals. That said, ethnographic approaches are well suited for multisite research and capturing perspectives from diverse actors. Ethnographic approaches also allow for incorporation of new sites and participants as studies progress. These may represent underutilized possibilities of ethnographic approaches in IS.

The leading reasons given for using ethnographic approaches among the included articles were studying context-specific phenomena, capturing emic perspectives, and studying complex interactions. These rationales are consistent with proposals for the use of ethnographic methods in healthcare research ( Huby et al., 2007 ; Savage, 2000 ). In particular, we noted that ethnographic approaches were used to detail implementation processes and formalize the experience of individuals involved in implementation as research results.

The rationales for use of ethnographic approaches in IS suggest that collaborative approaches to ethnography may be especially valuable for studying adaptations to interventions and implementation strategies ( Stirman et al., 2019 ), “mechanisms” by which implementation strategies succeed or fail ( Lewis et al., 2018 , 2020 ; Powell et al., 2019 ; Zuckerman et al., 2017 ), and complex adaptive systems ( Braithwaite et al., 2018 ; Reed et al., 2018 ). The iterative nature of ethnography makes it well-suited to investigating emergent phenomena that are a feature of such systems, especially as interventions and strategies interact with contextual factors.

An additional possible contribution of ethnography to implementation is increased reflexivity and awareness of positionality ( Barry et al., 1999 ; Bikker et al., 2017 ). There is growing recognition in academic healthcare for the ways systems of oppression (e.g., racism, sexism, and colonialism) operate within and through healthcare institutions ( Evans et al., 2020 ; Horton, 2019 ; National Academies of Science Engineering and Medicine, 2018 ). Especially, given that underrepresented minorities are often excluded from academic positions, researchers must critically address their positionality in relation to systems of oppression when conducting research ( Association of American Medical Colleges, 2019 ; Blackstock, 2020 ; McKay, 2018 ; Sufrin, 2015 ).

Some scholars have argued that research is only “ethnographic” if it employs a particular theoretical orientation, not merely a distinct set of methods ( Jowsey, 2016 ; Lambert, 2002 ; Waring & Jones, 2016 ). In conducting this review, we did not seek to reconcile tensions between traditional ethnographic approaches and more structured or abbreviated approaches used in health fields. Rather, our intention was to promote clear communication and thoughtful application of ethnographic methods, so that such tensions may be productive sources of critique and innovation, rather than merely sites of discord or misjudgment. Toward that end, we developed reporting recommendations.

Recommendations for reporting

Rather than develop criteria for reporting on ethnographic methods de novo, we sought to build on existing recommendations. The Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research (COREQ) is a checklist intended to improve reporting of qualitative research in health sciences ( Tong et al., 2007 ). It is the most cited of the EQUATOR Network’s key reporting guidelines for qualitative research ( Centre for Statistics in Medicine, n.d .). COREQ consists of 32 items separated into three domains: (1) research team and reflexivity, (2) study design, and (3) analysis and findings. Our study team agreed that these criteria were useful for the reporting on ethnographic methods. However, we noted several areas where additional information and emphasis could improve clarity in reporting ( Table 3 ).

Recommendation for reporting on ethnographic approaches in implementation research.

COREQ: Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research.

Domain 1: research team and reflexivity

COREQ’s first domain includes criteria on researcher credentials (Item 2), occupation (Item 3), gender (Item 4), experience and training (Item 5), and relationship with participants (Items 6–8). Reflecting on researchers’ characteristics and relationship to studies can add substantially to ethnographic approaches ( Barry et al., 1999 ; Bikker et al., 2017 ). As Dixon-Woods (2003) has argued, “researchers are required to be reflexive—that is, to reflect on and be able to give an account of how they produced their interpretations—and to be able to show that their interpretation is warranted by the data” (p. 326). Information on researchers’ training can improve readers’ confidence in the execution of methods. Explanations of researchers’ positionality can improve readers’ understandings of how studies were conducted and what insights were available to researchers.

We found that a few articles in our review included information on researchers’ training and relationship to study sites and participants. We recommend that articles delineate researchers’ training and experience in ethnographic methods, including any training provided for completion of the study. We also recommend providing detailed information on researchers’ relationship to the study site and participants, which may go beyond the items explicitly listed in COREQ. Discussing researchers’ social position and characteristics in relation to study sites and participants may be relevant depending on the study’s context and aims.

In the IS field, clarifying how researchers were perceived by participants and their existing roles in organizations is especially important. Implementation efforts may be perceived as burdensome top-down initiatives by some staff. In these situations, staff may withhold their honest views if they perceive researchers as surveillance agents for organizational leadership. Researchers can contextualize these dynamics by clarifying their position within organizations and explicating their relationship with participants. Delineating any strategies that were used to gain participants’ trust is recommended.

Domain 2: study design

COREQ’s second domain includes criteria on methodological orientation and theory (Item 9), participant selection (Items 10–13), setting (Items 14–16), and data collection (Items 17–23). In our review, we found substantial diversity in articles’ study designs, with many using mixed- or multi-method designs. This diversity makes comprehensive reporting of study designs crucial.

Beyond the existing items in COREQ’s Domain 2, we recommend that researchers explain why an ethnographic approach is appropriate for their research question, clarifying what they mean by “ethnographic” and, if relevant, the relationship between their theoretical approach and their use of ethnographic methods. If appropriate, we recommend that researchers consider applying and referencing approaches to focused or rapid ethnography when planning and reporting studies ( Higginbottom et al., 2013 ; Knoblauch, 2005 ; Palinkas & Zatzick, 2019 ; Wall, 2015 ). Such approaches often provide clear guidelines for their use and are typically understood to be distinct from conventional ethnography, which may help avoid ambiguity ( Knoblauch, 2005 ; Wall, 2015 ).

Given the contested meanings of ethnography, we recommend that researchers consider whether referencing ethnography adds or detracts from understanding their approaches. We propose that the invocation of ethnography merely to justify the use of observation in methods is unnecessary. Describing observational methods as ethnographic is rarely clarifying, given the breadth of meanings associated with ethnography that we observed. Rather, researchers may focus on detailing how observational methods were employed, by whom, and what their goals were. Similarly, researchers merely seeking to convey that their studies were conducted in “real world” settings or during routine activities may describe their work as in situ rather than as ethnographic.

Ethnographic approaches often involve informal interactions in mundane activities that can be difficult to convey in a formal description of methods. Clifford Geertz (1998) famously theorized ethnographic work as “deep hanging out.” Few articles in our review conveyed such unstructured immersive approaches, possibly because they were not used or because researchers were concerned that these would not be perceived as rigorous. We encourage researchers to describe informal, unstructured, and unplanned interactions that contributed meaningfully to data collection and provide important insights. Phenomenological approaches may prove useful to implementation researchers who wish to engage with such unplanned or unstructured research experiences ( Cohen et al., n.d .; van Manen, 2016 ).

An advantage of ethnographic approaches is that they are commonly iterative. Study settings and participants can evolve as researchers gain knowledge and insights ( Agar, 2006 ). We recommend that researchers explicitly delineate how their planned approaches evolved over the course of the study and why. Such descriptions can provide valuable information for readers. Clear descriptions of such iterative approaches may also contribute to evolving ethnographic methodologies and study designs in IS.

Domain 3: analysis and findings

COREQ’s Domain 3 includes criteria related to data analysis (Items 24–28) and reporting (Items 29–32). COREQ presumes that researchers will use some approach to data coding leading to theme derivation in analyses. While ethnographic analyses do generally involve identification of themes, they may not involve explicit data coding ( Agar, 2006 ). Regardless of how themes are derived, we recommend that researchers’ reflexivity be explicitly considered in analyses, given its central importance to ethnographic approaches ( Barry et al., 1999 ; Bikker et al., 2017 ). We similarly suggest that researchers present results within their sociohistorical context if it will improve the understanding of their findings.

Given the diversity of study designs within which ethnographic approaches are used in IS, differing approaches to presenting results are to be expected. COREQ emphasizes the importance of presenting quotations in results (Item 29). We additionally recommend that researchers present results from all methods used as a part of ethnographic approaches, including observational methods. Doing so may include descriptions of settings or events that were noteworthy. Use of digital media, including audio, photographs, and video, may also be used to convey researchers’ observations ( Underberg & Zorn, 2013 ).

Researchers seeking to follow our recommendations may encounter structural barriers from journals in the form of word limits or formatting requirements. Notably, sociology and anthropology journals, where ethnographic research has traditionally been published, have word limits in the range of 9,000–15,000, rather than 2,000–4,000 that is typical of health journals, and do not dictate the article structure. We encourage health journal editors to allow longer article lengths for qualitative and mixed-methods work. Editors may consider allowing longer versions of methods and results for online publication with abbreviated print versions.

In some instances, our recommendations may suggest a blurring of traditional article structures and headings. Researchers may need to preview results if they describe how methods iteratively evolved or preview discussion topics if they present their results within a sociohistorical context. We encourage researchers and editors to be open to flexible presentations of studies if these convey more faithfully iterative, recursive, and reflexive approaches. We recognize that article length and structure guidelines are unlikely to change in the near term. We encourage researchers to seek creative ways in which to communicate their ethnographic and mixed-methods approaches within existing parameters. This may include using supplemental materials sections or publishing separate study protocols that provide additional methodological detail.

Limitations

As a scoping review, our study provides an exploratory rather than a comprehensive view of ethnography in IS. Our analyses are likely influenced by our disciplinary backgrounds, though we sought to recruit a multidisciplinary team and critically challenge our implicit notions through iterative coding and discussions. Our recommendations are aimed at improving clarity and comprehension in communicating ethnographic approaches, but we did not make suggestions for what ethnography is or how it should be done in IS.

Ethnographic approaches to IS may allow researchers to gain insights that would not be available through other methods, particularly on the interactions between implementation processes and context as well as insiders’ views of implementations efforts. Comprehensive and harmonized reporting approaches could improve the understanding of ethnographic approaches, enhancing its value in IS.

Supplemental Material

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding: The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: A.K.G. was supported by the National Institute on Drug Abuse of the National Institutes of Health under award number F30DA044668. B.J.P. was supported by the National Institute of Mental Health under award number K01MH113806. A.B.H. and E.P.F. were supported by the VA Quality Enhancement Research Initiative under award numbers QUE 15-272 and QUE 20-028. I.R.’s contribution to this article was partially supported by a T32 Fellowship from the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (5T32AT00378). The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health.

Supplemental material: Supplemental material for this article is available online.

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• Media Studies
• Communication
• Linguistics

Ethnography | A Deep Dive into Media Audiences & Consumption

• May 31, 2024 August 25, 2024

Ethnography is a qualitative research method rooted in anthropology. Researchers immerse themselves in the daily lives of the subjects they study. This method is crucial in Media and Communications because it allows researchers to understand how people interact with media in their everyday contexts. Ethnography provides deep insights into the cultural, social, and individual dimensions of media use. These are often overlooked by quantitative research methods.

Historical Background of Ethnography

Ethnography has its origins in anthropology, particularly in the works of early anthropologists like Bronisław Malinowski and Margaret Mead. Malinowski’s study of the Trobriand Islanders and Mead’s work in Samoa are classic examples of ethnographic research. These researchers spent extended periods living with the communities they studied, learning their languages, and participating in their daily routines. This immersive approach allowed them to understand the cultures they studied from an insider’s perspective; a concept known as “emic” understanding.

In Media and Communications, Ethnography began to gain prominence in the 1970s and 1980s. Researchers realised that to truly understand how people use and interpret media, it was essential to observe them in their natural settings. This shift marked the beginning of “Audience Ethnography”. Scholars focused on how audiences engage with media in their everyday lives (Hammersley & Atkinson, 2019).

The Ethnographic Method

Ethnography is a flexible and adaptive research method. The process usually begins with the researcher selecting a specific group or community to study. This could be anything from a small village to an online community. The researcher then spends a significant amount of time observing and participating in the daily activities of this group. This participation is key; the researcher must become a part of the community to gain a true understanding of it.

Participant Observation

Participant observation is the core of ethnographic research. It involves the researcher taking part in the daily activities of the group they are studying while also observing and recording these activities. The dual role of participant and observer can be challenging. The researcher must balance involvement with the community and the objective observation needed to analyse their behaviours critically.

For example, a media ethnographer might spend time with a family in their home to understand how they consume television. The researcher would not only observe which programmes the family watches but also participate in discussions about the shows. Therefore, observe how family members interact during viewing, and note how television fits into their broader daily routines (Morley, 1986).

Field Notes & Reflexivity

Field notes are the primary data collection tool in Ethnography. These notes are detailed descriptions of observations, interactions, and thoughts that the researcher records during and after their time in the field. It is essential to write these notes as soon as possible to capture the details while they are still fresh in the researcher’s mind.

Reflexivity is also a critical component of Ethnography. Reflexivity means that the researcher must constantly reflect on their role in the research process and how their presence might influence the group they are studying. For instance, a researcher might notice that people behave differently when they know they are being observed. Acknowledging and accounting for these changes is part of the ethnographic process (Hammersley & Atkinson, 2019).

In-Depth Interviews

In-depth interviews complement participant observation. These interviews allow the researcher to explore specific topics in more detail. Thus, gaining insights into the participants’ perspectives, feelings, and interpretations. The interviews are typically semi-structured, with the researcher preparing a list of topics or questions to cover but allowing the conversation to flow naturally.

For example, in an ethnographic study of social media use, the researcher might interview participants about their motivations for using specific platforms, their experiences of online interactions, and how these activities impact their offline lives. These interviews can reveal deeper layers of meaning that are not always visible through observation alone.

Applications of Ethnography in Media & Communications

Researchers have applied Ethnography in various ways in Media and Communications research. This method offers a unique lens for exploring how media integrates into people’s lives, shapes identities, and influences social relations.

Audience Studies

One of the primary areas where Ethnography has been applied is in audience studies. Traditional media research often relied on surveys and ratings to understand audiences. However, these methods could not capture the complex ways in which people engage with media. Ethnography filled this gap by providing a more nuanced understanding of audience behaviour.

For instance, David Morley’s study “The Nationwide Audience” (1980) is a seminal work in this field. Morley conducted ethnographic research on how different social groups interpreted the same television programme. His findings revealed that people from different social backgrounds interpreted media content in varied ways, shaped by their cultural and social contexts. This study highlighted the importance of considering the audience’s socio-cultural background in media analysis.

Media Production

Ethnography is also valuable in studying media production. By observing and participating in the processes of media creation, researchers can gain insights into the decision-making processes, power dynamics, and cultural influences that shape media content.

For example, an ethnographer might study a newsroom to understand how journalists select and frame news stories. By attending editorial meetings and accompanying journalists in the field, the researcher can observe how they negotiate news values and how external pressures, such as political or commercial interests, influence the final product. This approach reveals the complexities and challenges of producing media in a real-world context.

Digital Ethnography

With the rise of digital media, Ethnography has adapted to study online communities and digital interactions. Digital Ethnography, also known as Netnography, involves studying communities that exist in online spaces, such as social media platforms, forums, or virtual worlds.

For instance, researchers might study how fan communities organise online, create and share content, and develop their cultural norms and practices. By immersing themselves in these online environments, ethnographers can understand how digital media facilitates new forms of social interaction and identity construction.

A notable example is the work of Christine Hine. She conducted ethnographic research on the use of the internet in everyday life. Hine’s work highlighted how the internet is not just a tool for communication but a cultural space where people live out significant parts of their lives (Hine, 2000).

Challenges of Ethnographic Research

While Ethnography offers many benefits, it also presents several challenges that researchers must navigate. These challenges include ethical considerations, time commitment, and the subjective nature of the research.

Ethical Considerations

Ethnographic research often involves close interaction with participants, which raises several ethical issues. Researchers must obtain informed consent from their participants. This approach ensures that participants understand the nature of the research and how researchers will use their data. In some cases, obtaining consent can become complicated, especially in contexts where people might not fully grasp the implications of the research.

Moreover, ethnographers must be mindful of privacy and confidentiality. Since ethnographic research often involves detailed observations of people’s lives, there is a risk of exposing sensitive information. Researchers must take care to anonymise their data and consider how their findings might impact the communities they study.

Time Commitment

Ethnography is a time-intensive research method. It requires researchers to spend extended periods in the field, often months or even years. This time commitment can be challenging, especially for researchers working under time constraints or with limited resources.

The long duration of ethnographic research also means that it is often difficult to cover large populations. Instead, Ethnography typically focuses on small, specific groups, which can limit the generalisability of the findings. However, the depth of understanding gained from Ethnography often outweighs this limitation.

Subjectivity & Reflexivity

Ethnography is inherently subjective. The researcher’s background, beliefs, and experiences can influence their observations and interpretations. This subjectivity is not necessarily a weakness, but it does require the researcher to be constantly reflexive. Reflexivity involves critically examining one’s role in the research process and acknowledging how personal biases might affect the findings.

For example, a researcher studying a community with very different cultural norms from their own might unintentionally interpret behaviours through the lens of their cultural background. Being reflexive means recognising these biases and striving to understand the community’s practices from their perspective.

The Value of Ethnography in Media & Communications

Despite its challenges, Ethnography remains a valuable method in Media and Communications research. It offers unique insights that are difficult to obtain through other research methods. By immersing themselves in the contexts they study, ethnographers can uncover the rich, complex ways in which media influences people’s lives.

Richness of Data

One of the main strengths of Ethnography is the richness of the data it produces. Unlike surveys or experiments, which often reduce social phenomena to numbers and variables, Ethnography captures the complexities and nuances of human behaviour. This richness allows researchers to develop a deep understanding of their subjects. Thus, providing insights that can lead to more effective and culturally sensitive media practices.

Grounded Theory Development

Ethnography often leads to the development of grounded theory. Grounded theory is an inductive approach where theories emerge from the data rather than being imposed from the outset. This approach is particularly useful in Media and Communications, where rapidly changing technologies and cultural practices often outpace existing theories.

For example, an ethnographic study of how people use mobile phones in a particular community might reveal new patterns of behaviour that challenge existing theories of media consumption. By allowing theories to emerge from the data, Ethnography can contribute to the development of more accurate and relevant models of media use.

Influence on Policy & Practice

Ethnographic research can also have a significant impact on policy and practice. By providing a detailed understanding of how people engage with media, Ethnography can inform the design of media content, platforms, and policies that are more aligned with users’ needs and cultural contexts.

For instance, an ethnographic study of children’s television viewing habits might reveal that certain programmes reinforce gender stereotypes. These findings could then be used to advocate for more inclusive and diverse content that better reflects the realities of children’s lives.

Ethnography is a powerful tool in Media and Communications research. It allows researchers to gain a deep, nuanced understanding of how media is embedded in the social and cultural contexts of people’s lives. While it presents challenges, such as ethical considerations and the time-intensive nature of the research, the insights gained through ethnography are invaluable. By immersing themselves in the worlds they study, ethnographers can uncover the rich, complex ways in which media shapes and is shaped by human behaviour.

In a rapidly changing media landscape, where new technologies and platforms are constantly emerging, Ethnography remains a vital method for exploring the cultural and social dimensions of media use. As Media and Communications continue to evolve, ethnographic research will undoubtedly play a crucial role in helping us understand the intricate relationships between media, culture, and society.

Hammersley, M. and Atkinson, P. (2019) Ethnography: Principles in Practice . 4th edn. London: Routledge.

Hine, C. (2000) Virtual Ethnography . London: SAGE Publications.

Morley, D. (1980) The Nationwide Audience: Structure and Decoding . London: BFI.

Morley, D. (1986) Family Television: Cultural Power and Domestic Leisure . London: Routledge.

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• Ethnography: challenges and opportunities
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• Janice Jones 1 ,
• Joanna Smith 2
• 1 Institute of Vocational Learning, School of Health and Social Care, London South Bank University , London , UK
• 2 Children’s Nursing, School of Healthcare, University of Leeds , Leeds , UK
• Correspondence to Dr Janice Jones, Institute of Vocational Learning, School of Health and Social Care, London South Bank University, London SE1 0AA, UK; jonesj33{at}lsbu.ac.uk

https://doi.org/10.1136/eb-2017-102786

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• paediatrics
• paediatric surgery
• paediatric neurosurgery
• health services administration & management
• quality in health care

Introduction

Collectively qualitative research is a group of methodologies, with each approach offering a different lens though which to explore, understand, interpret or explain phenomena in real word contexts and settings. This article will provide an overview of one of the many qualitative approaches, ethnography , and its relevance to healthcare. We will use an exemplar based on a study that used participant-as-observer observation and follow-up interviews to explore how occupational therapists embed spirituality into everyday practice, and offer insights into the future directions of ethnography in response to increased globalisation and technological advances.

What is ethnography?

What research methods do ethnographic researchers adopt.

Ethnographic methods are diverse and a range of approaches can be adopted; they are based on observation, often complemented with interviews, and detailed analysis often at a micro level. Although the methods used are not exclusive to ethnography, it is the depth of fieldwork and the continuous process of engaging with participants and their natural environments that is central and adds strength to the findings of ethnographic studies. 6 Participant observation requires immersion in the setting under investigation, and observing the language, behaviours and values of the participants. 7 Consequently, paramount to undertaking an ethnographic study is the role of the researcher in data collection.

Engaging with participants in the real world poses several challenges; first the researcher must decide whether to adopt an overt or covert approach to data collection and observation. In an overt approach the participants know they are being observed, whereas in a covert approach the participants are unaware they are being observed. The rationale for undertaking covert data collection in healthcare contexts needs careful consideration because of ethical implications, and the tensions with the principles of good research governance such as the right to choice whether to participate, information provision and gaining consent. 8 Second, the researcher must consider ‘their position’ either as an ‘insider’ (emic) or ‘outsider’ (etic). 5 Broadly, an emic approach is aligned with immersing into the culture, observing and recording participants’ way of life and activity, in contrast to the etic approach that observes and describes communities and cultures ( table 1 ). Both methods produce rich, in-depth data aiming to make sense of the context or phenomena under investigation, and require the researcher to be reflexive when undertaking fieldwork, accounting for their own assumptions and presuppositions to strengthen the findings. 5

• View inline

Approaches to participant observation 7

Ethnographic approaches to data collection produce voluminous unstructured data from a range of sources, for example fieldwork notes, diary entries, memos and, where appropriate, interview transcripts. The volume of data can be challenging to analyse and we would recommend a structured approach such as the framework approach. 9 The framework approach is rigorous, logical and transparent, and is particularly suitable to manage large amounts of textual information, while remaining close to the original data. 10 Framework approach supports the process of crystallisation, where the multiple facets of an ethnographic study are iteratively analysed, and constantly reviewed to identify patterns and associations across the data. 9 While the final stage in the framework approach aims to present the data in a way that is meaningful to the reader by grouping findings into categories and themes, the role of the researcher is to offer explanations about ‘how and why’ events, actions and interactions occur. 9 10

Table 2 outlines the methods adopted, rationale for decisions made and challenges of undertaking an ethnographical study that explored how occupational therapists incorporate spiritual care into their everyday practice. 11 Data were collected through participant-as-observer, recognising JJ’s role as an occupational therapist and knowledge of the study setting, with semistructured interviews used to explore with participants their decisions and thoughts by reflection on the observational data collected. Several key findings emerged; first spirituality is more meaningfully described than defined for occupational therapy practice. Second, central to occupational therapy practice is supporting patients during times of vulnerability; addressing the spiritual constructs of practice is essential to holistic person-centred care. Finally, organisational and contextual factors influenced how the occupational therapists framed their practice, and adopted strategies to retain their commitment to holistic, person-centred practice. 11

Methods, rationale for decision and challenges undertaking ethnographical research

How flexible is ethnography to social changes, globalisation and technological advances?

Rapidly advancing technology and increased globalisation require healthcare organisations to adapt and change; similarly approaches to undertaking qualitative research must evolve. 12 The increased use of web-based platforms as a means of sharing information, offering support networks and monitoring patients is creating opportunities for health researchers to study the naturally occurring and vast amount of data generated online. The rapid advancement of online communities has resulted in the emergence of online research methodologies such as netnography. 13 Netnography is rooted in ethnographical methods that aim to explore the social interactions of online communities, and can be adapted across the spectrum of online activities. 14

The emergence of team-based ethnography, as a departure from the traditional lone researcher working ‘ in the field’ , is in part in response to the globalisation of societies, economies and ororganisations. 15 Multisite or global ethnography is a new way of conceptualising ethnography that offers opportunities to study the interconnectedness of modern society, 15 and could be appropriate to study healthcare systems globally.

In summary, it is not surprising that qualitative research has been widely adopted as a means of understanding healthcare from the patient experience, and exploring service provision, care delivery and organisational cultures. The value of focused ethnographic studies in healthcare is essential to develop an in-depth understanding of healthcare cultures and explore complex phenomenon in real world contexts.

• Ritchie J ,
• Streubert HJ ,
• Carpenter DR
• Hammersley M ,
• Edgecombe N
• McNaughton Nichols C ,
• Angrosino M
• Hammersley M
• Costello L ,
• McDermott M ,
• Kozinets RV
• Jarzabkowski P ,
• Bednarek R ,
• Cabantous L
• Monahan T ,

Competing interests None declared.

Provenance and peer review Commissioned; internally peer reviewed.

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Ethnographic study: qualitative studies

How to use an ethnographic study to evaluate your digital health product.

This page is part of a collection of guidance on evaluating digital health products.

Ethnography involves observing people in their own environment to understand their experiences, perspectives and everyday practices. This can give in-depth insight into a particular context, group or culture.

Ethnography uses different research techniques, which may include observations, taking field notes, informal conversations, interviews, document analysis, surveys, filming and photography. More rapid approaches have been developed in recent years, some of which include digital methods.

What to use it for

Use ethnography to describe how a particular group or community works. For example, you could focus on the experiences of:

• professionals delivering a digital health service
• changes in routine practices in health services because of digital tools
• patients living with a health condition and using digital tools

Ethnography investigates the whole setting rather than a digital product in isolation. It focuses on exploring experiences (how someone might use the product in practice), not testing hypotheses. It is usually informed by specific research questions and theory. It can involve detailed examination of one or a few cases – these might be people or places.

You can use an ethnography to:

• inform service development (formative or iterative evaluation), by assessing needs or understanding how current systems work
• describe how your service works (summative evaluation)

Benefits include:

• it can offer a deeper understanding of experiences and local practices than quantitative studies or qualitative studies that only rely on interviewing (what people do versus what they say)
• it can uncover experiences, knowledge and perspectives that other methods miss out because of its real world focus and flexible approach
• it can give a voice to seldom-heard groups and perspectives that have been marginalised or overlooked
• it can uncover unintended consequences of changes made

Drawbacks include:

• it usually involves extensive field work – this is time-consuming and needs experience, although rapid ethnographic approaches are increasingly being used
• it can be subjective because it’s very dependent on the evaluator’s interpretation and skills
• negotiating permissions and access to carry out observational work can be difficult

How to carry out an ethnography

Ethnography includes a range of specific techniques. You will need to decide which methods to use. This will depend on:

• the evaluation question
• the setting being studied
• the availability of participants and materials

Research may include document analysis – for example, reading all documents from board meetings of a health service, or starting with an organisational chart.

The researcher will place themself in the setting being studied. It’s important that they establish good relations with the group or community and build trust. The researcher may identify knowledgeable informants who can act as a way in to understanding and interacting with the community.

You might select participants to cover the range of different experiences. In ethnography, the researcher can evolve their approach to data collection as the study goes on or collect data opportunistically. The researcher analyses the emerging data flexibly, identifying themes and any gaps or questions that require further study. Often, the researcher will sit in a clinic, spend time in organisations or visit patient’s homes. Digital ethnography can involve interacting with participants in a virtual space. The researcher observes events and talks to participants, either in a more formal way like a scheduled interview, or more informally during observations.

Field notes are usually made by the researcher. These are qualitative notes recorded during or soon after observations. They include both factual information (times, dates, behaviour observed, comments by participant) and reflections and interpretations by the researcher.

Ethnographic research is interpretive, so it can be subjective. To counter this, researchers often try to examine their own reasoning and involvement, recording it and working through any assumptions or difficulties that come up (this is called critical reflexivity). They often involve others in the evaluation team to sense-check their findings. They may validate findings by sharing their interpretations with participants, opening them up for discussion.

Data analysis tends to involve reading and re-reading the research materials using a constant comparison approach, where each finding is compared with existing findings. This is a sense-making process, drawing on the different types of evidence collected. It will often be a form of thematic analysis . Your analysis might draw on existing theory or you may develop a new theory that lets you be more responsive to the data.

Example: a rapid ethnography of patient portal use

Ackerman and others (2017), Meaningful use in the safety net: a rapid ethnography of patient portal implementation at five community health centers in California

The team wanted to examine the implementation of patient portals (also known as Personal Health Records) in US healthcare services for low-income populations. They used what they described as a rapid ethnography. They carried out 4 site visits, each lasting one to one-and-a-half days. They used methods including:

• detailed field notes
• 12 interviews with clinicians and management
• 35 informal focus groups with clinical and IT staff
• observations of sign-up procedures and clinic work
• a brief survey with 45 responses
• a document review of marketing materials for the portal
• quantitative data on portal use

The team also carried out a telephone interview with a programme coordinator at a fifth site.

Observing clinic work involved sometimes observing patients. Patients who were present gave informed consent. A university ethics committee decided that the study didn’t require ethics approval .

The health systems were putting in considerable effort to implement the portals, encouraging staff support and changing work patterns to accommodate portal-related work. They achieved or were close to achieving targets that released central funding, which were focused on registrations.

However, staff were not sure how to achieve real impact in their patients’ lives with a portal that was not necessarily relevant to patients. Patients rarely used the portal and faced many barriers to doing so. For example:

• no internet access at home
• lack of digital and linguistic literacy
• language barriers
• family members or caregivers not able to act on behalf of patients because of privacy restrictions
• purpose of the portal not clear to patients
• not clear how the portal worked, for example, who would see messages sent through the portal
• patients worried that using the portal would lead to government surveillance
• patients preferred face-to-face contact to digital interactions

The authors noted:

• that they could only gain limited insight into patients’ experience with their methods
• a potential form of sampling bias: health centres who took part were probably more advanced in their use of the technology than average

More information and resources

Greenhalgh and Swinglehurst (2011), Studying technology use as social practice: the untapped potential of ethnography . This discusses the value of ethnographic studies for studying health technology.

Policy Lab blog (2020), Lab Long Read: Human-centred policy? Blending ‘big data’ and ‘thick data’ in national policy . A practical example of how ethnography can be used in policy-making.

Pink and Morgan (2013), Short-term ethnography: intense routes to knowing . This article discusses the use of short-term (also called rapid) ethnographic studies.

Vindrola-Padros & Vindrola-Padros (2018), Quick and dirty? A systematic review of the use of rapid ethnographies in healthcare organisation and delivery . This article reviews the use of rapid ethnographies in health care.

Examples of ethnographic studies in digital health

Ventres and others (2006), Physicians, Patients, and the Electronic Health Record: An Ethnographic Analysis . An example of an ethnographic study of how electronic health records change the interaction between patients and physicians.

Sturesson and others (2018), Clinicians’ Selection Criteria for Video Visits in Outpatient Care: Qualitative Study . Following the introduction of video visits with patients in outpatient care in Sweden, researchers conducted an ethnographic study to investigate how clinicians used this new healthcare delivery.

Solvoll and others (2013), Physicians Interrupted by Mobile Devices in Hospitals: Understanding the Interaction Between Devices, Roles, and Duties . This study investigated the impact of interruptions caused by mobile phones to the working practices of physicians in Norway.

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Ethnography: theory, method and ethics

The subject of Sociology at the Department of Social Studies offers the doctoral course – Ethnography: Theory, Methods and Ethics, 7.5 credits in collaboration with the subject of social work. During the course, the boundaries between what characterizes ethnographic research compared to other qualitative approaches are discussed, and how ethnographic research has developed over time. The limitations and possibilities of ethnographic research are discussed. The relationships between theory, method and method development, research ethics and ethnographic writing are the main themes of the course. In addition to these, the relationship of ethnographic research to politics and social development is discussed. During the course, ethnographic fieldwork is practiced through field observations.

Course information

Number of credits.

7.5 credits

Department of Social Studies

All doctoral students admitted to doctoral studies

Teaching language

Swedish or English depending on the composition of participants

Växjö

Next course occasion

Spring 2025

Study rate, or the equivalent

Prerequisites.

Admission to the course requires that the student is admitted to doctoral studies.

Teaching method

The teaching on the course consists of lectures and seminars.

Course description

Course description Ethnography: theory, method and ethics

The literature is subject to change.

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Speaker 1: Validity and reliability are probably among the most confusing and frustrating terms when it comes to qualitative research. There are so many definitions and so many discussions and so many alternative terms have been put forward, so it doesn't really help to understand what validity is and how we can ensure that our findings are valid or how we can increase these findings' validity. So in this video, I'll take you through six steps to increase the validity of your qualitative findings. In quantitative research, validity and reliability are quite straightforward terms. So reliability refers to replicability and consistency of certain measurements and validity to whether this measurement is measuring what it's supposed to measure. So it's quite straightforward. But think about qualitative research. Can we really talk about consistency of our instruments? Imagine that you're interviewing the same person twice and asking the same questions. Even though you're asking the same questions, this person is not likely to give you exactly the same answers. So for this reason, reliability doesn't really refer to qualitative research. It's not that relevant. And usually, people discuss validity rather than reliability of qualitative studies. And validity of qualitative research is usually discussed in terms of three common threads to validity, which are three different types of bias. Respondent bias, researcher bias, and reactivity. So respondent bias refers to a situation where your participants are not giving you honest responses for any reason. They may feel that the topic is threatening to their self-esteem, for example, or they may simply try to please you and give you the answers they think you are looking for. Researcher bias refers to the influence of your previous knowledge and assumptions on your study, which may be a very dangerous and a very risky factor in your study. I've talked about the role of assumptions quite a lot in my other videos and in my blog. And finally, reactivity refers to the role of you as a researcher and your influence, your physical presence in the research situation, and its possible influence on the data, on what the participants say, and so on and so forth. And in order to minimize the potential influence of these three types of bias on your study, Robson suggests the following six strategies to deal with threats to validity. Prolonged involvement refers to you as a researcher being involved in the research situation in your participants' environment, which is likely to result in the increase in the level of trust between you and your participants. This in turn is likely to reduce the risk of respondent bias and reactivity as you generate this common trust. However, it is likely to increase the risk of researcher bias because you and your participants are likely to generate some set of common assumptions. And as I said, assumptions may be a very dangerous thing for your research. Triangulation is such a broad topic and I'm sure that you've at least heard about it before, if not read about it. Triangulation may refer to many things, including triangulation of data, so when you collect different kinds of data, triangulation of methodology, when you have, for example, mixed methods research, or triangulation of theory, where you're comparing what's emerging from your data to previous existing theories. In any case, triangulation is likely to reduce all kinds of threats to validity, so just remember that it's always good to consider triangulating these different aspects of your study. Peer debriefing refers to any input or feedback from other people. This may happen during internal events, such as seminars or workshops in your university, or external, such as conferences. In any case, the feedback and quite likely criticism that you'll receive from other people helps you become more objective and helps you see and become aware of certain limitations of your study. And this is likely to reduce researcher's bias, so again, researcher's bias which was about your previous assumptions and your previous knowledge. So you're becoming more objective and more aware of how your study may be improved. Member checking may mean a couple of things, but in essence it refers to the practice of seeking clarification with your participants. So asking them to clarify certain things before you actually jump into conclusions and describe your interpretation of that data. So it may be simply keeping in touch with your participants, sending them a text message or an email, and asking them whether what you think they meant when they said something in the interview is actually what they meant. Another practice is to send them interview transcripts. So to send them the whole transcript and ask them to delete or change things or add things to that transcript. And finally, you have a method called validation interview, which is all about member checking. So it's basically a whole interview which serves the purpose of this clarification that I discussed. So after you've conducted the first run of analysis after the interview, you conduct another interview and you just ask your participants about your interpretations and about anything that was not clear to you. Negative case analysis is one of my favorite things to do. And I talk extensively about it in my self-study course on how to analyze qualitative data. But basically what it involves is analyzing these cases or data sets that do not match the rest of the data, do not match the trends or patterns that emerge in the rest of the data. And although you may feel tempted to ignore these cases, you may fear that they will ruin your data or your findings, quite often they tell you more about the rest of the data than these actual other cases themselves. So negative cases highlight not just how this one case is different from the rest of the data, but they actually highlight the similarities between the rest of the data. So this is a very, very valuable and important thing to do. And finally, keeping an audit trail means that you keep a record of all the activities involved in your research. So all the audio recordings, your methodological decisions, your researcher diary, your coding book, just having all of this available so you can, for example, demonstrate it to somebody. So again, this way you become really transparent and the validity of your findings cannot really be argued. Importantly, don't worry about having to apply all these strategies in your study. Firstly, some of them are almost natural, like peer debriefing. So as a student, it's very likely that you will receive feedback, you will talk to other people about your study, you will receive feedback and criticism. So you don't really have to worry about consciously applying it as a strategy. And secondly, you can choose some of these strategies, a combination of these strategies. You don't really have to apply every single one on the list. However, it is important to think about validity and it's very important to talk about it in your study. So if you demonstrate that you are thinking about validity and you demonstrate what exactly you did to increase this validity, it will be a major, major advantage to you and to your study.

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Libraries Faculty and Staff Presentations

Leveraging chatgpt for qualitative data analysis: a case study on data management practices among computer vision scholars.

Zonghan Lei , Purdue University Follow Wei Zakharov , Purdue University Follow Yung-Hsiang Lu , Purdue University

Lei, Z., Zakharov, W., & Lu, Y. (2024). Leveraging ChatGPT for qualitative data analysis: A case study on data management practices among computer vision scholars. Presented at the 2024 Teaching and Learning with AI conference, Orlando, FL.

Qualitative data analysis plays a crucial role in deriving meaningful insights from research data. However, conventional software tools like NVivo present challenges such as high costs and complexity (Dalkin, et al., 2021). This study advocates for integrating ChatGPT, an AI technology, into qualitative data analysis workflows to overcome these challenges. Focusing on the data management practices of Computer Vision professors, the study investigates how ChatGPT enhances human analysis by streamlining processes and uncovering hidden patterns within datasets. Structured interviews were conducted with six participants from research institutions (R1). The transcripts underwent manual scrutiny to identify recurring themes and patterns. Subsequently, the results were compared with ChatGPT analysis to evaluate its efficacy in qualitative data analysis. The findings illustrate the effectiveness of ChatGPT in augmenting traditional qualitative data analysis methods. By leveraging AI capabilities, ChatGPT facilitates a more efficient and comprehensive analysis, enabling researchers to uncover nuanced insights that may have been overlooked through manual analysis alone. This case study contributes to the ongoing discourse on AI's role in research, demonstrating how ChatGPT can enhance qualitative data analysis and drive advancements in academic research methodologies. The study also revealed certain limitations of AI as an analysis tool, such as potential inaccuracies, biases, and as well as ethical concerns. Therefore, while AI aids in analysis, manual intervention remains crucial to ensure accuracy and comprehensiveness in research methodologies.

Date of this Version

Recommended citation.

Lei, Zonghan; Zakharov, Wei; and Lu, Yung-Hsiang, "Leveraging ChatGPT for Qualitative Data Analysis: A Case Study on Data Management Practices among Computer Vision Scholars" (2024). Libraries Faculty and Staff Presentations. Paper 197. https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/lib_fspres/197

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