literature review on personnel management

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Personnel Review

ISSN : 0048-3486

Article publication date: 18 May 2021

Issue publication date: 3 May 2022

With a focus on the evolution of human resource management (HRM) quantification over 2000–2020, this study addresses the following questions: (1) What are the data sources used to quantify HRM? (2) What are the methods used to quantify HRM? (3) What are the objectives of HRM quantification? (4) What are the representations of quantification in HRM?

Design/methodology/approach

This study is based on an integrative synthesis of 94 published peer-reviewed empirical and non-empirical articles on the use of quantification in HRM. It uses the theoretical framework of the sociology of quantification.

The analysis shows that there have been several changes in HRM quantification over 2000–2020 in terms of data sources, methods and objectives. Meanwhile, representations of quantification have evolved relatively little; it is still considered as a tool, and this ignores the possible conflicts and subjectivity associated with the use of quantification.

Originality/value

This literature review addresses the use of quantification in HRM in general and is thus larger in scope than previous reviews. Notably, it brings forth new insights on possible differences between the main uses of quantification in HRM, as well as on artificial intelligence and algorithms in HRM.

HR analytics
HR scorecard

Coron, C. (2022), "Quantifying human resource management: a literature review", Personnel Review , Vol. 51 No. 4, pp. 1386-1409. https://doi.org/10.1108/PR-05-2020-0322

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Review of main theories of personnel management

The study aims to illustrate the majority of scientist view of the theoretical background related to personnel management. The analysis of the scientific review indicates that the theoretical background exists positive and negative aspect of the personnel management. According to a review of the contradict theories, we found out the allocation of the personnel management based on our personal experience. Taking into account approaches scientists on personnel management, we came to conclusion, that personnel management features exist the modern economy. Thus, considered approaches can be subdivided into two subgroups: economic system of personnel management in which dominate problems of manufacture, distribution, exchange, consumption of material benefits and social system of personnel management considering questions of development of the personnel. Keywords: Personnel management, system personnel management, approaches of personnel management, strategic direction of personnel management.

Designing a Qualitative Action Research for DepEd Personnel: A Comprehensive Guide

The Department of Education (DepEd) in the Philippines acknowledges the critical role of research in enhancing educational practices and outcomes. Qualitative action research presents a valuable methodology for DepEd personnel to scrutinize and refine their professional practices. This comprehensive guide aims to equip DepEd staff with the knowledge and skills necessary to design and implement effective qualitative action research studies within the context of Philippine basic education.

Table of Contents

The Significance of Qualitative Action Research in Education

Qualitative action research is a methodical inquiry approach that empowers practitioners to investigate and improve their own professional practice. This research methodology combines the depth and richness of qualitative research with the practical, solution-oriented nature of action research. By engaging in qualitative action research, DepEd personnel can:

Identify and address specific challenges in their educational environments
Engage in reflective practice to enhance their teaching or administrative skills
Generate context-specific knowledge that contributes to the broader understanding of Philippine basic education
Foster a culture of evidence-based decision-making within the DepEd system
Bridge the gap between educational theory and practice

The iterative nature of action research allows for continuous improvement and adaptation, making it particularly suitable for the dynamic educational landscape in the Philippines.

Aligning Research with DepEd Priorities

Before embarking on a qualitative action research project, DepEd personnel must familiarize themselves with the Department’s research priorities. The Basic Education Research Agenda, as outlined in DepEd Order No. 39, s. 2016, identifies four primary themes and three cross-cutting themes that should guide research efforts:

Primary Themes:

Teaching and Learning
Curriculum implementation
Pedagogical practices
Assessment strategies
Learning resources and materials
Child Protection
School safety and security
Mental health and well-being
Anti-bullying initiatives
Child rights awareness
Human Resource Development
Teacher training and professional development
Leadership and management skills for administrators
Performance evaluation systems
Staff welfare and motivation
School-based management
Policy implementation and evaluation
Stakeholder engagement
Resource allocation and utilization

Cross-cutting Themes:

Gender and Development
Gender-responsive pedagogy
Equal opportunities in education
Addressing gender-based violence in schools
Disaster Risk Reduction and Management
School disaster preparedness
Integration of DRRM in curriculum
Resilient educational infrastructure
Inclusive Education
Special education needs
Indigenous Peoples’ education
Education for out-of-school youth and adults

By aligning their research with these themes, DepEd personnel can ensure that their studies contribute meaningfully to the Department’s strategic goals and address pressing issues in Philippine basic education.

Steps in Designing Qualitative Action Research

1. identifying the research problem.

The initial step in designing qualitative action research involves pinpointing a specific problem or issue within the researcher’s professional context. This problem should be:

Relevant to the researcher’s practice
Aligned with DepEd priorities
Amenable to investigation and intervention

To identify a suitable research problem, DepEd personnel can:

Reflect on challenges they face in their daily work
Analyze school or division-level data to identify areas for improvement
Consult with colleagues and supervisors to identify shared concerns
Review DepEd reports and policy documents to identify systemic issues

Examples of research problems in the Philippine context might include:

Low student engagement in distance learning modalities
Challenges in implementing Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education in linguistically diverse classrooms
Limited parental involvement in school governance processes
Difficulties in providing inclusive education for students with disabilities in regular classrooms

2. Formulating Research Questions

Once the research problem is identified, the next step is to develop clear, focused research questions. These questions serve as the foundation for the study, guiding data collection and analysis. Effective research questions for qualitative action research should be:

Open-ended: Allowing for exploration of complex issues
Focused: Addressing specific aspects of the identified problem
Contextual: Relevant to the particular setting of the study
Actionable: Leading to potential interventions or improvements

Examples of well-formulated research questions include:

How do students perceive the effectiveness of various distance learning strategies used in our school?
What challenges do teachers face in implementing Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education, and how can these challenges be addressed?
What factors influence parental participation in school governance, and how can schools enhance this participation?
How can regular classroom teachers adapt their instructional practices to better support students with disabilities?

3. Conducting a Comprehensive Literature Review

A thorough literature review is crucial for situating the research within existing knowledge and identifying gaps that the study can address. DepEd personnel should consult a wide range of sources, including:

Academic journals in education (e.g., Asia Pacific Education Review, International Journal of Educational Development)
DepEd policy documents, orders, and reports
Publications from Philippine educational research institutions (e.g., Philippine Normal University, University of the Philippines College of Education)
International education databases (e.g., ERIC, Education Research Complete)
Previous action research studies conducted in similar contexts

When reviewing literature, researchers should:

Critically analyze the methodologies and findings of existing studies
Identify trends and patterns in the research on their topic
Note any contradictions or debates in the field
Consider how their study can contribute to or extend current knowledge

The literature review should inform the research design, provide a theoretical foundation for the study, and help contextualize the findings within the broader educational landscape.

4. Selecting Participants and Research Setting

In qualitative action research, participants are typically individuals within the researcher’s professional environment. The selection of participants should be purposeful and aligned with the research questions. Potential participants may include:

Students from specific grade levels or programs
Teachers within a department or school
School administrators and support staff
Parents or community members involved in school activities

When selecting participants, researchers should consider:

Sample size: Qualitative studies often use smaller samples to allow for in-depth exploration
Diversity: Ensuring a range of perspectives and experiences are represented
Accessibility: Considering practical constraints such as time and resources

The research setting is equally important and should be described in detail. This may include:

Physical characteristics of the school or classroom
Socio-economic context of the community
Linguistic and cultural diversity of the student population
Relevant policies or programs specific to the setting

Researchers must also address ethical considerations when selecting participants, particularly when working with minors or vulnerable populations. This includes:

Obtaining informed consent from participants (and parents/guardians for minors)
Ensuring confidentiality and anonymity
Considering potential risks or benefits to participants
Adhering to DepEd research ethics guidelines and obtaining necessary approvals

5. Choosing Appropriate Data Collection Methods

Qualitative action research employs various data collection methods to gather rich, detailed information. The choice of methods should be guided by the research questions and the nature of the problem being investigated. Common data collection methods include:

Observations
Participant observation: Researcher actively participates in the setting while observing
Non-participant observation: Researcher observes without direct involvement
Structured observation: Using predetermined categories or checklists
Unstructured observation: Open-ended recording of events and behaviors
Semi-structured interviews: Using a flexible guide of questions
In-depth interviews: Exploring specific topics in detail
Life history interviews: Focusing on participants’ personal experiences and narratives
Focus Group Discussions
Homogeneous groups: Participants with similar characteristics or experiences
Heterogeneous groups: Participants with diverse backgrounds or perspectives
Online focus groups: Conducted through digital platforms for remote participants
Document Analysis
School records and reports
Lesson plans and curriculum materials
Student work samples
Policy documents and guidelines
Visual Methods
Photovoice: Participants take photographs to represent their experiences
Video diaries: Participants record video logs of their thoughts and experiences
Concept mapping: Visual representation of ideas and relationships
Reflective Journals
Researcher’s reflective notes on the research process
Participant journals documenting their experiences and reflections

When selecting data collection methods, researchers should consider:

Triangulation: Using multiple methods to enhance the validity of findings
Feasibility: Choosing methods that are practical within time and resource constraints
Cultural appropriateness: Ensuring methods are sensitive to local contexts and norms
Participant preferences: Considering which methods will be most comfortable for participants

6. Planning Data Analysis Strategies

Data analysis in qualitative action research is an iterative process that often occurs concurrently with data collection. Researchers should plan their analysis strategies in advance to ensure a systematic approach. Key steps in qualitative data analysis include:

Data Preparation
Transcribing interviews and focus group discussions
Organizing field notes and observational data
Digitizing or scanning relevant documents
Familiarization with Data
Reading through all data multiple times
Making initial notes on emerging patterns or ideas
Developing a coding scheme based on research questions and emerging themes
Applying codes to segments of data
Using software (e.g., NVivo, ATLAS.ti) for large datasets
Identifying Themes
Grouping related codes into broader themes
Creating thematic maps or matrices to visualize relationships
Interpreting Findings
Analyzing themes in relation to research questions and literature
Identifying patterns, contradictions, or unexpected findings
Considering alternative explanations for the data
Ensuring Trustworthiness
Member checking: Sharing interpretations with participants for feedback
Peer debriefing: Discussing findings with colleagues or mentors
Negative case analysis: Actively seeking data that contradicts emerging patterns
Synthesizing Results
Developing a coherent narrative that addresses the research questions
Selecting illustrative quotes or examples to support findings
Connecting findings to broader educational theories or practices

7. Developing an Action Plan

A distinctive feature of action research is the development and implementation of an action plan based on research findings. This plan should outline specific steps to address the identified problem or improve practice. Elements of an effective action plan include:

Clear, measurable objectives
Specific outcomes to be achieved
Indicators of success
Detailed strategies or interventions
Step-by-step description of proposed actions
Resources required for implementation
Timeline for implementation
Short-term and long-term goals
Milestones and checkpoints
Roles and responsibilities
Identifying key stakeholders involved in implementation
Assigning specific tasks to team members
Monitoring and evaluation methods
Tools for tracking progress
Criteria for assessing effectiveness
Contingency plans
Anticipating potential challenges
Developing alternative strategies

The action plan should be flexible and adaptable, allowing for modifications based on ongoing reflection and feedback during implementation.

8. Ethical Considerations in Qualitative Action Research

Ethical considerations are paramount in qualitative action research, particularly given the close relationships between researchers and participants. DepEd personnel must adhere to ethical guidelines throughout the research process:

Informed Consent
Providing clear information about the study’s purpose and procedures
Ensuring participants understand their rights and the voluntary nature of participation
Obtaining written consent from participants (and parents/guardians for minors)
Confidentiality and Anonymity
Protecting participant identities in all research outputs
Securely storing and managing data
Discussing limits of confidentiality (e.g., mandatory reporting of abuse)
Minimizing Harm
Assessing potential risks to participants
Providing support or referrals if sensitive issues arise
Balancing research goals with participant well-being
Reciprocity and Benefit
Ensuring research benefits participants and their communities
Sharing findings with participants in accessible formats
Involving participants in decision-making about research outcomes
Power Dynamics
Acknowledging and addressing power imbalances between researcher and participants
Ensuring participants feel free to express their views without fear of repercussions
Cultural Sensitivity
Respecting local customs and values
Adapting research methods to suit cultural contexts
Involving community members in research design and interpretation
Institutional Approval
Obtaining necessary permissions from DepEd and school administrators
Adhering to institutional review board requirements, if applicable

Special Considerations for Indigenous Peoples’ Education

When conducting research involving Indigenous Cultural Communities (ICCs), researchers must adhere to additional ethical protocols as outlined in DepEd Order No. 39, s. 2016:

Free, Prior, and Informed Consent (FPIC)
Conduct consent-seeking processes in accordance with customary governance practices
Ensure consultations are free from coercion or implied benefits
Provide comprehensive information about the research purpose, process, and potential impacts
Community Ownership and Authorship
Recognize ICCs as co-authors and co-owners of research focused on their Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Practices (IKSPs) or Indigenous Learning Systems (ILSs)
Obtain permission from recognized community representatives for presentation or publication of research findings
Protection of Intellectual and Cultural Property Rights
Acknowledge that IKSPs and ILSs remain the communal property of ICCs
Ensure research does not lead to unauthorized use or patenting of indigenous knowledge
Culturally Appropriate Research Methods
Adapt research approaches to respect and align with indigenous ways of knowing and sharing information
Involve community members in the design and interpretation of research
Benefit Sharing
Ensure research outcomes directly benefit the participating ICC
Develop mechanisms for sharing research findings with the community in accessible formats

By adhering to these ethical guidelines, researchers can ensure that their work respects and protects the rights and cultural heritage of Indigenous Peoples while contributing to the improvement of Indigenous Peoples’ Education.

Integrating Learning Action Cells (LACs) in Action Research

Learning Action Cells (LACs), as outlined in DepEd Order No. 35, s. 2016, are a school-based continuing professional development strategy that can be effectively integrated into the action research process. LACs provide a collaborative platform for teachers to engage in ongoing learning and problem-solving, making them an ideal complement to action research initiatives.

Benefits of Integrating LACs in Action Research:

Collaborative Problem Identification
LAC sessions can be used to collectively identify research problems relevant to the school context
Group discussions can help refine research questions and objectives
Peer Support and Feedback
Regular LAC meetings provide opportunities for researchers to share progress and challenges
Colleagues can offer constructive feedback and suggestions throughout the research process
Collective Data Analysis
LAC members can assist in analyzing and interpreting research data, providing multiple perspectives
Group discussions can help identify emerging themes and patterns in the data
Action Plan Development
LACs can serve as a forum for collaboratively developing action plans based on research findings
Group input can enhance the feasibility and effectiveness of proposed interventions
Dissemination of Findings
LAC sessions provide a platform for sharing research results with colleagues
Findings can be immediately discussed and applied to improve teaching practices

Implementing LAC-Integrated Action Research:

Establish Regular LAC Meetings
Schedule consistent LAC sessions dedicated to action research discussions
Ensure participation from all relevant staff members
Create a Supportive Environment
Foster a culture of open communication and constructive feedback
Encourage all LAC members to contribute ideas and insights
Align LAC Topics with Research Stages
Structure LAC discussions to correspond with different phases of the action research process
Use LAC sessions to address specific research challenges or questions
Document LAC Contributions
Keep detailed records of LAC discussions related to the research project
Acknowledge LAC members’ contributions in research reports and presentations
Evaluate LAC Impact
Assess how LAC integration has influenced the research process and outcomes
Use feedback to refine the integration of LACs in future action research projects

By effectively integrating LACs into the action research process, DepEd personnel can enhance the collaborative nature of their studies, improve the quality of their research, and promote a culture of continuous professional development within their schools.

Accessing the Basic Education Research Fund (BERF)

The Basic Education Research Fund (BERF) is a grant facility provided by DepEd to support education research initiatives. As outlined in DepEd Order No. 43, s. 2015 and further refined in DepEd Order No. 16, s. 2017, BERF aims to promote evidence-based policy formulation and decision-making within the Department.

Eligibility Criteria:

Regular/Permanent DepEd employees (teaching and non-teaching)
No pending administrative cases
Have not yet availed of the grant for the given year
Maximum of three research team members for group proposals

Research Scope and Maximum Grant Amounts:

Nationwide or covering at least two regions: Up to PhP 500,000 (maximum 1 year duration)
Region-wide or covering at least two divisions: Up to PhP 150,000
Division-wide, district-wide, or covering at least two schools: Up to PhP 30,000
School/Community Learning Center-wide: Up to PhP 30,000 (maximum 6 months duration)

Application Process:

Submit a research proposal following the prescribed format (Annex 2 of DepEd Order No. 16, s. 2017)
Include an endorsement from the immediate supervisor
Provide an anti-plagiarism and absence of conflict of interest declaration

Evaluation and Approval:

Proposals are evaluated by the appropriate Research Committee (National, Regional, or Schools Division)
Evaluation criteria include relevance, methodology, feasibility, and potential impact
Approved proposals must score at least 70% on the evaluation criteria

Fund Release and Liquidation:

Funds are released in tranches based on the submission and acceptance of deliverables
Liquidation follows standard government accounting and auditing rules

Reporting and Dissemination:

Researchers must submit progress reports and a final research report
Findings should be disseminated through appropriate channels (e.g., conferences, publications)
Research outputs become co-owned by the researcher and DepEd

By accessing BERF, DepEd personnel can secure financial support for their action research projects, contributing to the Department’s goal of promoting a culture of research and evidence-based practice in Philippine basic education.

Research Management Guidelines

DepEd Order No. 16, s. 2017 establishes comprehensive Research Management Guidelines to ensure the effective conduct and utilization of research within the Department. These guidelines outline the roles and responsibilities of Research Committees at different levels of governance.

National Research Committee (NRC):

Composition:
Chair: Undersecretary for Planning and Field Operations
Co-Chair: Undersecretary for Curriculum and Instruction
Members: Directors of relevant DepEd bureaus and services
Responsibilities:
Provide guidance on the Basic Education Research Agenda
Approve research proposals from central offices and those covering multiple regions
Forge partnerships with academic and research institutions
Recommend the release of research funds
Ensure compliance with accounting and auditing rules

Regional Research Committee (RRC):

Chair: Assistant Regional Director
Co-Chair: Chief of Policy, Planning, and Research Division
Members: Chiefs of relevant regional divisions
Evaluate and approve research proposals at the regional level
Confirm school research proposals endorsed by the Schools Division Research Committee
Forge partnerships with local academic and research institutions
Manage the regional allocation of the Basic Education Research Fund
Provide feedback to the Regional Executive Committee on research initiatives

Schools Division Research Committee (SDRC):

Chair: Assistant Schools Division Superintendent
Co-Chairs: Chiefs of School Governance and Operations Division and Curriculum Implementation Division
Members: Relevant division supervisors and representatives
Evaluate and approve research proposals from schools and community learning centers
Prepare and submit reports on division research initiatives to the RRC
Ensure compliance with research ethics and guidelines
Provide technical assistance to school-based researchers

These Research Committees play a crucial role in managing the research process, from proposal evaluation to dissemination of findings. They ensure that research initiatives align with DepEd priorities, maintain ethical standards, and contribute to evidence-based decision-making at all levels of the education system.

Capacity Building for Research

Developing research skills among DepEd personnel is crucial for promoting a culture of inquiry and evidence-based practice. The Department has implemented various capacity-building initiatives to support staff in conducting qualitative action research:

Research Skills Training:
Workshops on research methodologies, data analysis, and academic writing
Training on the use of research tools and software
Mentorship Programs:
Pairing novice researchers with experienced mentors
Providing ongoing guidance throughout the research process
Research Conferences and Symposia:
Organizing events for sharing research findings and best practices
Facilitating networking among DepEd researchers
Online Learning Resources:
Developing e-learning modules on research methods
Creating a repository of exemplary research studies
Collaborative Research Projects:
Encouraging cross-division and cross-region research teams
Promoting partnerships with academic institutions
Research Ethics Training:
Providing guidance on ethical considerations in educational research
Ensuring compliance with DepEd research ethics guidelines

By participating in these capacity-building activities, DepEd personnel can enhance their research skills, contributing to the overall quality and impact of action research within the Department.

Technical Writing for Research Proposals and Reports

Effective technical writing is essential for communicating research ideas and findings clearly. Based on the supplemental research guides provided in DepEd Memorandum No. 144, s. 2017, here are key considerations for technical writing in action research:

Research Proposal Writing:

Concise and reflective of the research focus
Engaging and informative
Introduction and Rationale:
Clearly state the research problem and its significance
Provide context and background information
Literature Review:
Synthesize relevant previous studies
Identify gaps in existing knowledge
Research Questions:
Clearly articulate the main questions guiding the study
Ensure questions are specific, measurable, and aligned with the research problem
Methodology:
Describe and justify the chosen research design
Detail sampling procedures, data collection methods, and analysis techniques
Ethical Considerations:
Address potential ethical issues and mitigation strategies
Describe procedures for obtaining informed consent
Timeline and Budget:
Provide a realistic timeline for research activities
Present a detailed budget with justifications for each item

Research Report Writing:

Concise summary of the research problem, methods, findings, and implications
Typically 150-300 words
Introduction:
Provide background and context for the study
Clearly state the research problem and objectives
Detailed description of research design, participants, and procedures
Explain data collection and analysis methods
Present findings in a logical, organized manner
Use tables, charts, or graphs to illustrate key results
Discussion:
Interpret findings in relation to research questions and existing literature
Address limitations of the study
Conclusion and Recommendations:
Summarize key findings and their implications
Provide actionable recommendations based on the research
References:
Use APA format for citations and references
Ensure all cited works are included in the reference list
Appendices:
Include supplementary materials such as data collection instruments or detailed statistical analyses

By following these guidelines, DepEd researchers can produce well-structured, clear, and professional research proposals and reports that effectively communicate their work to various stakeholders.

Action Research Template

Based on the supplemental research guides provided in DepEd Memorandum No. 144, s. 2017, here is a detailed outline of the action research template for DepEd personnel:

I. Title Page

Ii. abstract (150-300 words), iii. table of contents, iv. introduction.

A. Context and Rationale

Description of the educational setting
Explanation of the problem or issue being addressed
Significance of the research

B. Research Questions

Clear, focused questions guiding the study

V. Review of Related Literature

A. Theoretical Framework B. Related Studies C. Synthesis of Literature

VI. Methodology

A. Research Design B. Participants and/or Sources of Data

Description of sample and sampling procedures C. Data Gathering Methods
Detailed explanation of instruments and procedures D. Data Analysis Plan
Description of analytical techniques to be used

VII. Results and Discussion

A. Presentation of Findings

Organized by research questions or themes
Use of tables, charts, or graphs as appropriate B. Analysis and Interpretation
Connection of findings to literature and theory C. Reflection on the Action Research Process

VIII. Conclusions and Recommendations

A. Summary of Key Findings B. Implications for Practice C. Recommendations for Future Research or Action

IX. Action Plan

A. Objectives B. Proposed Interventions or Strategies C. Timeline for Implementation D. Resources Needed E. Monitoring and Evaluation Plan

X. References

Xi. appendices.

A. Data Collection Instruments B. Sample Consent Forms C. Additional Data or Analyses D. Other Relevant Materials

This template provides a comprehensive structure for DepEd personnel to organize their action research projects. Researchers should adapt the template as needed to suit the specific requirements of their study while ensuring all essential elements are included.

Designing qualitative action research offers DepEd personnel a powerful tool for examining and enhancing their professional practice while contributing to the improvement of the Philippine basic education system. By following a systematic approach, aligning studies with DepEd research priorities, and addressing ethical considerations, educators can generate meaningful insights that inform policy and practice.

The process of engaging in qualitative action research not only produces valuable knowledge but also fosters a culture of inquiry, reflection, and continuous improvement within the Department. As more DepEd staff embrace this research methodology, they contribute to a growing body of context-specific evidence that can drive positive change in Philippine education.

Through thoughtful design and implementation of qualitative action research, integration of Learning Action Cells, utilization of the Basic Education Research Fund, and adherence to Research Management Guidelines, DepEd personnel can become active agents of educational improvement. This approach bridges the gap between theory and practice, ultimately enhancing the learning experiences of students across the Philippines.

By developing their research capacity, engaging in collaborative inquiry, and producing high-quality technical writing, DepEd staff can contribute significantly to the evidence base that informs educational policies and practices. This commitment to research-driven improvement aligns with DepEd’s vision of providing quality, equitable, culture-based, and complete basic education for all Filipino learners.

This article, “Designing a Qualitative Action Research for DepEd Personnel: A Comprehensive Guide,” was authored by Mark Anthony Llego and published on August 9, 2024.

Mark Anthony Llego

Mark Anthony Llego, a visionary from the Philippines, founded TeacherPH in October 2014 with a mission to transform the educational landscape. His platform has empowered thousands of Filipino teachers, providing them with crucial resources and a space for meaningful idea exchange, ultimately enhancing their instructional and supervisory capabilities. TeacherPH's influence extends far beyond its origins. Mark's insightful articles on education have garnered international attention, featuring on respected U.S. educational websites. Moreover, his work has become a valuable reference for researchers, contributing to the academic discourse on education.

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Congenital pulmonary airway malformation in preterm infants: a case report and review of the literature.

1. Introduction

2. case presentation, 3. discussion, 4. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Click here to enlarge figure

	Referral	Prenatal Findings	GW at Birth	Respiratory Symptoms at Birth	Surgical Neonatal Intervention	Type of Surgery/Histology	Outcome
Case 1	Prendergast et al., 1998 [ ]	No	29	Yes	Yes	Pneumonectomy/CCAm type 3	Alive
Case 2	Srinivasan et al., 2012 [ ]	No	23 + 4, twin	Yes	Yes	Wedge resection/PPIE	Alive
Case 3	Balegar et al., 2012 [ ]	Yes	28	Yes	Yes	Wedge resection/CCAM type 1	Alive
Case 4	Abusalah et al., 2019 [ ]	No	28 + 1, twin	Yes	No	−	Alive
Case 5	Chandrasekaran et al., 2021 [ ]	Yes	26 + 1	Yes	No	CCAM type 3	Dead
Case 6	Ottomeyer et al., 2023 [ ]	No	28	Yes	Yes	Lobectomy/CCAM type 3	Alive
Present case	This study	No	28 + 4	Yes	No	−	Alive

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Bertolino, A.; Bertolo, S.; Lago, P.; Midrio, P. Congenital Pulmonary Airway Malformation in Preterm Infants: A Case Report and Review of the Literature. Life 2024 , 14 , 990. https://doi.org/10.3390/life14080990

Bertolino A, Bertolo S, Lago P, Midrio P. Congenital Pulmonary Airway Malformation in Preterm Infants: A Case Report and Review of the Literature. Life . 2024; 14(8):990. https://doi.org/10.3390/life14080990

Bertolino, Alessia, Silvia Bertolo, Paola Lago, and Paola Midrio. 2024. "Congenital Pulmonary Airway Malformation in Preterm Infants: A Case Report and Review of the Literature" Life 14, no. 8: 990. https://doi.org/10.3390/life14080990

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Published: 02 July 2024

Unravelling the complexity of ventilator-associated pneumonia: a systematic methodological literature review of diagnostic criteria and definitions used in clinical research

Markus Fally 1 ,
Faiuna Haseeb 2 , 3 ,
Ahmed Kouta 2 , 3 ,
Jan Hansel 3 , 4 ,
Rebecca C. Robey 2 , 3 ,
Thomas Williams 5 ,
Tobias Welte 6 ,
Timothy Felton 2 , 3 , 5 &
Alexander G. Mathioudakis 2 , 3

Critical Care volume 28 , Article number: 214 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) is a prevalent and grave hospital-acquired infection that affects mechanically ventilated patients. Diverse diagnostic criteria can significantly affect VAP research by complicating the identification and management of the condition, which may also impact clinical management.

We conducted this review to assess the diagnostic criteria and the definitions of the term “ventilator-associated” used in randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of VAP management.

Search methods

Based on the protocol (PROSPERO 2019 CRD42019147411), we conducted a systematic search on MEDLINE/PubMed and Cochrane CENTRAL for RCTs, published or registered between 2010 and 2024.

Selection criteria

We included completed and ongoing RCTs that assessed pharmacological or non-pharmacological interventions in adults with VAP.

Data collection and synthesis

Data were collected using a tested extraction sheet, as endorsed by the Cochrane Collaboration. After cross-checking, data were summarised in a narrative and tabular form.

In total, 7,173 records were identified through the literature search. Following the exclusion of records that did not meet the eligibility criteria, 119 studies were included. Diagnostic criteria were provided in 51.2% of studies, and the term “ventilator-associated” was defined in 52.1% of studies. The most frequently included diagnostic criteria were pulmonary infiltrates (96.7%), fever (86.9%), hypothermia (49.1%), sputum (70.5%), and hypoxia (32.8%). The different criteria were used in 38 combinations across studies. The term “ventilator-associated” was defined in nine different ways.

Conclusions

When provided, diagnostic criteria and definitions of VAP in RCTs display notable variability. Continuous efforts to harmonise VAP diagnostic criteria in future clinical trials are crucial to improve quality of care, enable accurate epidemiological assessments, and guide effective antimicrobial stewardship.

Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) stands as the most prevalent and serious hospital-acquired infection observed in intensive care units [ 1 ]. VAP prolongs hospital stays, durations of mechanical ventilation, and is associated with considerable mortality and an increase in healthcare costs [ 2 , 3 ].

Diagnosing VAP can be challenging for clinicians as it shares clinical signs and symptoms with other forms of pneumonia as well as non-infectious conditions [ 4 ]. The most recent international clinical guidelines define VAP as the presence of respiratory infection signs combined with new radiographic infiltrates in a patient who has been ventilated for at least 48 h [ 5 , 6 ]. While the guidelines developed by ERS/ESICM/ESCMID/ALAT do not provide a detailed definition of signs of respiratory infection [ 5 ], the ATS/IDSA guidelines mention that clinical signs may include the new onset of fever, purulent sputum, leucocytosis, and decline in oxygenation [ 6 ]. However, the ATS/IDSA guideline panel also acknowledges that there is no gold standard for the diagnosis of VAP [ 6 ]. This lack of a standardised definition is further highlighted by the varying, surveillance-based definitions of VAP provided by the Centre for Disease Control (CDC) and the European Centre for Disease Control (ECDC) [ 7 , 8 ]. These definitions, focusing on a combination of clinical, radiological, and microbiological signs to identify cases of VAP, were established to standardise reporting and facilitate the monitoring of infections in healthcare settings. However, the criteria given by the CDC and ECDC may not always align with the diagnostic criteria used by clinicians to confirm or rule out the condition [ 9 , 10 , 11 ].

Variations in the eligibility criteria applied to VAP can have a significant impact on systematic reviews and meta-analyses that assess different interventions, primarily due to the potential lack of comparability among the studied populations [ 12 ]. Furthermore, the incidence of VAP may be underestimated when excessively strict diagnostic criteria are employed [ 13 , 14 ].

A recent systematic review conducted by Weiss et al. focused on inclusion and judgment criteria used in randomised controlled trials (RCTs) on nosocomial pneumonia and found considerable heterogeneity [ 15 ]. However, the authors only considered RCTs evaluating antimicrobial treatment as interventions, did not distinguish between hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP) and VAP, and did not evaluate definitions of the term "ventilator-associated".

The objective of this systematic review was to provide a concise overview of the diagnostic criteria for VAP recently used in RCTs, as well as the definitions attributed to the term "ventilator-associated". Its findings will provide valuable insights to a forthcoming task force, which aims to establish a uniform definition and diagnostic criteria for VAP in clinical trials. The task force will be made up of representatives from prominent international societies with an interest in VAP, as well as patient partners with lived experience. The harmonisation of the diagnostic criteria for VAP in upcoming clinical research are vital for enhancing patient care, enabling accurate epidemiological studies, and guiding successful antimicrobial stewardship programs.

Protocol and registration

The protocol for this systematic review was registered in advance with the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO 2019 CRD42019147411), encompassing a broad review focusing on pneumonia outcomes and diagnostic criteria in RCTs. Recognising the limitations of discussing all findings in one manuscript, we opted to produce several focused and comprehensive manuscripts, all employing the same fundamental methodology, as registered with PROSPERO. While a previous publication focused on outcomes reported in RCTs on pneumonia management [ 16 ], the current submission specifically addresses diagnostic criteria for VAP.

Eligibility criteria

We included RCTs that were registered, planned, and/or completed that: (1) enrolled adults with VAP; and (2) assessed the safety, efficacy and/or effectiveness of pharmacological or non-pharmacological interventions for treating VAP.

We have excluded systematic reviews, meta-analyses, narrative reviews, post hoc analyses from RCTs, observational studies, case reports, editorials, conference proceedings, and studies that do not exclusively focus on pneumonia (such as trials including patients with pneumonia alongside other diseases). Additionally, studies on pneumonia subtypes other than VAP, such as pneumonia without specifying a subtype, community-acquired pneumonia (CAP), healthcare-associated pneumonia (HCAP), and HAP, have also been excluded. To maintain focus and relevance, studies on Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) were excluded from this systematic review, as the viral aetiology and distinct clinical management protocols differ significantly from the nature and treatment strategies of VAP. RCT protocols were only included if the results have not been previously published in another article included in this systematic review. Due to resource constraints and the lack of multilingual expertise within the review team, this systematic review was restricted to English-language RCTs.

Information sources and search

On 20 May 2024, we searched MEDLINE/PubMed, and the Cochrane Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) for RCTs published between 1 January 2010 and 19 May 2024. We used electronic algorithms introducing a combination of controlled vocabulary and search terms as reported in the Appendix.

Study selection

Two reviewers (FH, MF) independently screened titles and abstracts to identify eligible studies using Rayyan [ 17 ]. In case of disagreement, a third reviewer was consulted (AGM). After immediate exclusion of duplicates using EndNote X9, four reviewers (AGM, FH, JH, MF) independently checked for eligibility at full-text level. The results of the selection process are reported according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) [ 18 ].

Data collection process

We developed an extraction sheet as endorsed by the Cochrane Collaboration [ 19 ]. The extraction sheet was independently tested by three reviewers (AGM, FH, MF) on five randomly selected studies and adapted to ensure good inter-reviewer agreement. The extraction sheet contained the following elements: (1) study ID, name, reference and NCT number; (2) type of pneumonia: CAP, HCAP, HAP and/or VAP; (3) diagnostic criteria for pneumonia; (4) definition of setting; (5) study origin, design, populations, interventions, and outcomes.

Four reviewers (AGM, FH, JH, MF) extracted data from the eligible studies. Data were extracted sequentially from either a manuscript containing published results, a published protocol, or, upon obtaining a trial registration number from CENTRAL, from one of the designated trial registries, such as ClinicalTrials.gov, the Clinical Trials Registry India (CTRI), the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry (ChiCTR), the European Clinical Trials Database (EudraCT), the Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials (IRCT), the Japan Primary Registries Network (JPRN), and the Japanese University Hospital Medical Information Network Clinical Trials Registry (UMIN-CTR). Cross-checking of all extracted data was performed by a second reviewer (AGM, AK, MF, RR, TW). Disagreements regarding data collection were resolved by discussion between all reviewers.

Synthesis of results

The findings were consolidated through a combination of narrative and tabular formats. The presentation encompassed the quantitative representation of each diagnostic criterion in terms of numerical values and proportions. Additionally, we provide an analysis of the various combinations of diagnostic criteria employed in RCTs in a sunburst diagram and a tabular format, along with an examination of the definitions attributed to the term "ventilator-associated".

Risk of bias

The main goal of this systematic review was to explore the diagnostic criteria used in clinical trials for diagnosing VAP. It covered trials with published protocols and/or results, as well as those only registered in a trial database. The varying levels and gaps in the information provided by the various sources made it difficult to conduct a reliable and meaningful risk of bias assessment for all included studies. However, for RCTs with published data, risk of bias was evaluated by four reviewers (AGM, JH, MF, RR) using the Risk of Bias in Randomized Trials 2 tool (RoB-2 tool), as endorsed by the Cochrane Collaboration [ 20 ].

Study selection and characteristics

A total of 7173 records were identified through the databases MEDLINE and CENTRAL, as illustrated in Fig. 1 . Following the removal of duplicate entries, a screening process involving the evaluation of titles and abstracts was conducted on 5652 records. Among these, 650 records were deemed potentially eligible for inclusion. Ultimately, our review included 119 studies that specifically focused on VAP (Table S1 in the Appendix, the full dataset is available online [ 21 ]).

PRISMA flowchart showing study selection

The total number of patients in the 119 identified studies was 21,289. Among these studies, 83 focused exclusively on VAP, while the remaining studies encompassed various subtypes of pneumonia in addition to VAP (see Table 1 ). The majority of these studies were registered, and their protocols were accessible either through publication in a journal article or on a clinical trial platform. Results were accessible in 56.3% of cases, while both results and the protocol were accessible in 36.9% of cases. In 40.3% of the included studies, data could only be obtained from a trial registry platform, with ClinicalTrials.gov being the primary platform in 36 out of 48 cases, and ChiCTR (n = 2), CTRI (n = 3), EudraCT (n = 3), IRCT (n = 2), JPRN (n = 1) and UMIN-CTR (n = 1) in the remaining cases.

Diagnostic criteria were provided in 51.2% and the term “ventilator-associated” was defined in 52.1% of the studies, respectively. Of the 20 studies (16.8%) that referred to previously published diagnostic criteria, 13 cited the Clinical Pulmonary Infection Score (CPIS) [ 22 ], while the remaining referred to national and international guidelines.

We evaluated the risk of bias in 67 studies with published results using the RoB-2 tool. The overall assessment showed that 25% of the studies were at high risk of bias, 30% were at low risk of bias, and the remaining 45% had some concerns about potential bias. These results indicate variability in the methodological quality of the studies included in the review. The overall risk of bias and the detailed results of our assessments for the 67 studies are displayed in the Appendix (Figures SF1-SF2).

Diagnostic criteria for VAP

Pulmonary infiltrates.

Of the 61 studies on VAP that provided diagnostic criteria, 59 (96.7%) included the radiological evidence of a new or progressive pulmonary infiltrate.

Clinical signs and symptoms

The most frequently included clinical signs and symptoms were fever (86.9%), hypothermia (49.1%), sputum (70.5%), and hypoxia (32.8%). Different cut-off values were employed to define fever and hypothermia, as indicated in Table 2 . The majority of studies, accounting for 45.2%, utilised a cut-off of > 38 degrees Celsius (°C) to define fever, while 13.2% of studies used a cut-off of ≥ 38°C. In the case of hypothermia, the most commonly employed cut-off value was < 35°C, which was utilised in 43.3% of studies that included hypothermia as a criterion. Only a minority of studies provided information on the site of temperature measurement. Oral measurement was the most frequently employed method, followed by axillary and core temperature measurements (further details are displayed in Table S2 in the Appendix).

Biochemistry criteria

Fifty-four studies (88.5%) incorporated white blood count abnormalities as part of their diagnostic criteria for VAP. Conversely, only one study included an elevation of procalcitonin (PCT) as a diagnostic factor, and none of the identified studies included C-reactive protein (CRP). The specific thresholds for leucocytosis and leucopoenia varied across studies, with leucocyte counts ranging from greater than 10,000/mm3 to greater than 12,000/mm3 for leucocytosis, and less than 3,500/mm3 to less than 4,500/mm3 for leucopoenia (Table 3 ).

Combinations of diagnostic criteria

All definitions of pneumonia were composite in nature and required the fulfilment of a minimum number of predetermined criteria for the diagnosis to be established. In 90.2% of the studies the presence of a new pulmonary infiltrate was a mandatory criterion. Two studies did not include an infiltrate as criterion, whereas the remaining studies (n = 4) included the presence of an infiltrate in their criteria, it was, however, not required for a diagnosis.

The most commonly employed set of diagnostic criteria (18/61, 29.5%) consisted of a pulmonary infiltrate along with two or more additional criteria. However, these additional criteria varied across studies (Fig. 2 ). A quarter (17/61) of the included studies that provided diagnostic criteria required the fulfilment of all individual criteria for diagnosis, including an infiltrate. An infiltrate and one or more additional criteria were used to establish a diagnosis of VAP in 14.8% of studies (9/61). A total of 38 different combinations of diagnostic criteria for VAP were used in the 61 identified studies. A full set of these criteria is displayed in Table S3 in the Appendix.

The different combinations of diagnostic criteria used in VAP RCTs. CXR radiological evidence of a new infiltrate; T temperature criterion; WBC white blood count criterion; dys/tach dyspnoea and/or tachypnoea; O2 hypoxia; auscultation auscultation abnormalities

Definition of “ventilator-associated”

We noted that 52.1% of included studies incorporated a specific definition of the term “ventilator-associated” (Table 4 ). A total of nine distinct definitions were identified across 62 RCTs. The definition most commonly used was “onset after > 48 h of mechanical ventilation” (82.3%). Other definitions employed varying time thresholds, ranging from 24 h to seven days. Additionally, certain studies introduced supplementary criteria to further delineate the concept of “ventilator-associated”, such as administration of antibiotics prior to mechanical ventilation, duration of hospitalisation, or the timing of extubation.

Summary of evidence

This systematic review provides a concise overview of the diagnostic criteria for VAP used in RCTs and the definitions attributed to the term “ventilator-associated”. A total of 119 studies on VAP, published or registered between 2010 and 2024, were included, spanning a total of 21,289 patients. The majority of studies focused exclusively on VAP, while some also included other subtypes of pneumonia alongside VAP. Diagnostic criteria were provided in only 51.2% of the studies, and the term “ventilator-associated” was defined in only 52.1% of the studies. The most commonly utilised definition for “ventilator-associated” was “onset after > 48 h of mechanical ventilation”, used by 82.3% of studies providing a definition.

In clinical practice, the diagnosis of VAP is often based on a combination of clinical signs, laboratory results, and imaging findings, yet these are not without their limitations [ 8 ]. Our systematic review revealed considerable heterogeneity among diagnostic criteria for VAP in recent RCTs. Various combinations of specific criteria were employed to define VAP, leading to significant variability. Moreover, commonly used criteria were defined in different ways, with variations observed in the thresholds set for fever/hypothermia, as well as leucocytosis/leucopoenia.

Several criteria that were used in the studies included in our review have been shown to be insufficient for confirming a diagnosis of VAP. One of the most important criteria, included in the majority of reviewed RCTs, a new or progressive pulmonary infiltrate, has previously been reported to be of limited diagnostic value due to a lack of specificity [ 14 ]. Additionally, criteria like fever/hypothermia and the measurement of biomarkers such as leukocytes, CRP, and PCT may not be effective in diagnosing or excluding VAP in various clinical settings [ 4 , 23 , 24 ]. Despite this, CRP is widely used and has demonstrated some clinical value in predicting VAP [ 25 ]. It is, therefore, surprising that none of the RCTs included in our review employed CRP as a diagnostic criterion.

Overall, the findings of our systematic review underline the diverse nature of VAP, with different diagnostic criteria increasing the risk of both over- and underdiagnosis of VAP [ 14 , 26 ]. There have been attempts to diagnose VAP more objectively, one of these being the development of the CPIS in 1991, a six-component score that 10.9% of studies included in our review referred to [ 27 ]. This score includes different cut-offs for body temperature, leucocyte counts, tracheal secretion appearances, oxygenation levels and radiographical changes to estimate the risk for VAP. However, the CPIS has been shown not to be superior to other diagnostic criteria, and, therefore, its application remains controversial [ 8 , 11 , 22 , 28 ]. Other commonly applied criteria, such as the surveillance-based criteria by the ECDC and CDC, did not seem to be accurate enough to detect true cases of VAP either [ 9 , 10 , 11 ]. Furthermore, there is limited agreement between the two surveillance-based criteria, which has previously resulted in different estimates of VAP events [ 29 ].

In lieu of definitive diagnostic scores or sets of diagnostic criteria to detect all true cases of VAP, the findings of our systematic review indicate the need for more homogeneous diagnostic criteria in future RCTs, to assure their comparability. Currently, international guidelines avoid providing clear diagnostic criteria for VAP [ 5 , 6 ]. Given the significance of establishing strong consensus definitions for high-risk conditions like VAP, it is essential to emphasise even further that a uniform definition is crucial not only for advancing therapeutic research but also, and perhaps more importantly, for refining diagnostic methods. Together with core outcome sets, these definitions can help to improve the likelihood of attaining robust and reliable findings in forthcoming systematic reviews and meta-analyses [ 16 , 30 ].

Strengths and limitations

We used a comprehensive search strategy which included multiple databases and a wide range of search terms, ensuring broad identification of all potentially relevant trials. Additionally, the inclusion criteria were clearly defined, and the study selection process was conducted independently by multiple reviewers to minimise bias. The extraction sheet used for data collection was tested for inter-reviewer agreement and adapted accordingly. Another strength is the open availability of the complete dataset, maximising the transparency and reproducibility of our findings.

However, the following limitations need to be acknowledged. Firstly, the review only included RCTs conducted in English, which may have introduced language bias. This approach was adopted to ensure feasible and reliable data analysis within the scope of the resources available.

Additionally, the exclusion of studies focusing on pneumonia subtypes other than VAP may limit the generalisability of our findings. Furthermore, the lack of diagnostic criteria and definitions in a significant proportion of included studies suggests a potential reporting bias. This might be reinforced by the fact that 40.3% of data were received from trial registry platforms. Compared to final manuscript publications, reporting of eligibility criteria is often incomplete on registry platforms, therefore this must be highlighted as a limitation [ 31 ].

This systematic review provides an overview of diagnostic criteria for VAP used in RCTs and the definitions attributed to the term “ventilator-associated”. Our findings highlight the heterogeneity and lack of standardisation in commonly used diagnostic criteria, as well as the variability in definitions of "ventilator-associated" across clinical trials. We emphasise the need for a uniform definition of VAP to enable better comparability between studies and interventions. The results of this review will inform the work of an upcoming task force aimed at establishing such standardised criteria.

Availability of data and materials

Raw data are accessible via the Open Science Framework (OSF) at osf.io/v3 × 42. This link is referenced in our manuscript (Ref. 21).

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Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge and honour the contributions of Prof. Tobias Welte, who was a vital member of our research team and co-author of this manuscript. Prof. Welte passed away after the initial submission of this work but before its final acceptance. His insights and expertise were invaluable to the development of this research, and he remains deeply missed by the team. We dedicate this work to his memory.

Open access funding provided by Copenhagen University This study was partly supported by the NIHR Manchester Biomedical Research Centre (BRC, NIHR203308) as well as the Capital Region of Denmark (Region Hovedstaden). The funders had no role in study design, data collection or analysis, decision to publish, nor preparation of the manuscript. Dr Jan Hansel was supported by an NIHR Academic Clinical Fellowship in Intensive Care Medicine. Dr Rebecca Robey was supported by an NIHR Academic Clinical Fellowship in Respiratory Medicine. Dr Alexander G. Mathioudakis was supported by an NIHR Clinical Lectureship in Respiratory Medicine. All authors have completed a ICMJE uniform disclosure form detailing any conflicts of interest outside the submitted work that they may have. None of the authors have conflicts directly related to this work.

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Department of Respiratory Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Copenhagen University Hospital – Bispebjerg and Frederiksberg, Copenhagen, Denmark

Markus Fally

North West Lung Centre, Wythenshawe Hospital, Manchester University NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Manchester, UK

Faiuna Haseeb, Ahmed Kouta, Rebecca C. Robey, Timothy Felton & Alexander G. Mathioudakis

Division of Immunology, Immunity to Infection and Respiratory Medicine, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK

Faiuna Haseeb, Ahmed Kouta, Jan Hansel, Rebecca C. Robey, Timothy Felton & Alexander G. Mathioudakis

North West School of Intensive Care Medicine, Health Education England North West, Manchester, UK

Acute Intensive Care Unit, Wythenshawe Hospital, Manchester University NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Manchester, UK

Thomas Williams & Timothy Felton

Department of Respiratory Medicine and German Centre of Lung Research (DZL), Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany

Tobias Welte

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Contributions

MF: conceptualisation, methodology, software, formal analysis, investigation, data curation, writing—original draft, visualisation, project administration. FH: conceptualisation, investigation, data curation, validation, writing—review and editing. AK, JH, RCR and TWI: data curation, validation, writing—review and editing. TWE: conceptualisation, investigation, methodology, resources, validation, writing—review and editing. TF: conceptualisation, investigation, methodology, resources, validation, writing—review and editing, supervision. AGM: conceptualisation, investigation, methodology, software, resources, validation, writing—review and editing, project administration, supervision, funding acquisition, project administration.

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Correspondence to Markus Fally .

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Not applicable, as this was a methodological systematic review without patient involvement/participation.

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Supplementary Information

Additional file1 (docx 807 kb), search strategy, medline/pubmed.

#1: pneumonia [mh]

#2: bronchopneumonia [mh]

#3: pleuropneumonia [mh]

#4: Healthcare-Associated Pneumonia [mh]

#5: Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia [mh]

#6: pneumonia [ti]

#7: pneumonia* [ti]

#8: bronchopneumonia [ti]

#9: pleuropneumonia [ti]

#10: #1 OR #2 OR #3 OR #4 OR #5 OR #6 OR #7 OR #8 OR #9

#11: randomized controlled trial [pt]

#12: controlled clinical trial [pt]

#13: randomized [tiab]

#14: placebo [tiab]

#15: clinical trials as topic [mesh: noexp]

#16: randomly [tiab]

#17: trial [ti]

#18: #11 OR #12 OR #13 OR #14 OR #15 OR #16 OR #17

#19: animals [mh] NOT humans [mh]

#20: children [mh] NOT adults [mh]

#21: COVID-19 [mh] or (covid[ti]) or (coronavirus [ti]) or (sars-cov-2[ti]) or (covid-19[ti]) or (pandemic[ti])

#22: #19 OR #20 OR #21

#23: #18 NOT #22

#24: #10 AND #23

#25: Publication date: 2010 –2024

Cochrane library

#1: MeSH descriptor: [Pneumonia] explode all trees

#2: pneumonia*:ti

#3: #1 or #2

#4: MeSH descriptor: [COVID-19] explode all trees

#5: COVID-19:ti

#6: covid:ti

#7: coronavirus:ti

#8: sars-cov-2:ti

#9: #4 or #5 or #6 or #7 or #8

#10: #3 not #9

#11: Limit: Publication Date from 2010–2024

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Fally, M., Haseeb, F., Kouta, A. et al. Unravelling the complexity of ventilator-associated pneumonia: a systematic methodological literature review of diagnostic criteria and definitions used in clinical research. Crit Care 28 , 214 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13054-024-04991-3

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s13054-024-04991-3

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