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Urban child labor in bangladesh: determinants and its possible impacts on health and education.

1. Introduction

1.1. key justification of this study, 1.2. objectives of the study, 2. review of literature, 2.1. child labor in bangladesh, 2.2. determinants of child labor, 2.3. hazardous working environment, 3. materials and methods, 3.1. study area, 3.2. sample design and data collection, 3.3. data analysis, 4.1. socio-demographic characteristics of child laborers, 4.2. causes of being a child laborer, 4.3. nature of employment and working environment, 5. discussion, 6. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest, ethics approval.

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Share and Cite

Ahad, M.A.; Chowdhury, M.; Parry, Y.K.; Willis, E. Urban Child Labor in Bangladesh: Determinants and Its Possible Impacts on Health and Education. Soc. Sci. 2021 , 10 , 107. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci10030107

Ahad MA, Chowdhury M, Parry YK, Willis E. Urban Child Labor in Bangladesh: Determinants and Its Possible Impacts on Health and Education. Social Sciences . 2021; 10(3):107. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci10030107

Ahad, Md Abdul, Mitu Chowdhury, Yvonne K. Parry, and Eileen Willis. 2021. "Urban Child Labor in Bangladesh: Determinants and Its Possible Impacts on Health and Education" Social Sciences 10, no. 3: 107. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci10030107

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Innovative Issues and Approaches in Social Sciences (Mar 2022)

CHILD LABOR IN BANGLADESH: STATUS, CAUSES AND EFFECTS

• Rushni Korishi

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Child labor usually means the work done by children under the age of 15, and therefore interferes with their education, damages their physical, mental, social or psychological development. UNICEF reported in 2021 that the number of children engaged in child labor has risen to 160 million worldwide, with an increase of 8.4 million children in the last four years and another 9 million additional children at risk due to the impact of COVID-19. This paper has been focused on critically identifying the real scenario of child labor in Bangladesh. All data has been collected in this research for analyzing purposes from both primary and secondary sources. As the cause of poverty, child labor has been found as a deterrent phenomenon for the development of the nation. This paper has conducted a percentage analysis with a few recommendations and policy level suggestions for eliminating this social disease from Bangladesh.

• child worker
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Child Labour and Child Rights in Bangladesh: A Critical Analysis

58 Pages Posted: 26 Aug 2014

Mohammad Islam

Independent

Date Written: August 25, 2014

It is widely acknowledge that the phenomenon of “child labour” is Complex, multi-faceted and resistant to simple remedies. The Concept of children’s rights has undoubtedly been strengthened by implementation of the Human Rights Act 1998. Our concept of child labour is based on the ILO Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No.138) which represents the most comprehensive and authoritative international definition of minimum age for admission to employment or work, implying “economic activity”. Convention No.138 stipulates that ratifying states fix a minimum age and it defines a range of minimum ages below which no child should be allowed to work. Minima vary according to the level of development and according to the type of employment or work.

Keywords: Child Labour, UNICEF, Human Rights

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A Business Case for Human Rights at Work? Experimental Evidence on Labor Trafficking and Child Labor at Brick Kilns in Bangladesh

Globally, coercive labor (i.e., forced, bonded, and/or trafficked labor) and child labor are disproportionately prevalent in environments with weak regulatory enforcement and state capacity. Effective strategies for addressing them may therefore need to align with the private incentives of business owners, not relying on government action alone. Recognizing this, we test a ‘business case’ for improving work conditions and promoting human rights using a randomized controlled trial across nearly 300 brick kilns in Bangladesh. Among study kilns, rates of coercive and child labor are high: about 50% of sampled workers are trafficked, and about 70% of kilns use child labor. Our experiment introduced a production method that increased kiln productivity and revenue, and we test if these productivity gains in turn increase worker “compensation” (including better work conditions). Because adoption of the method requires important changes in worker routines, we also test if providing information to kiln owners about positively incentivizing workers to enhance adoption (and hence business revenue) can lead to better work conditions. We find no evidence that productivity gains alone reduced labor trafficking or child labor, but adding the information intervention reduced child labor by 25-30% without reducing revenue or increasing costs.

This research was funded in part by the United States Department of State under terms of Cooperative Agreement No. SSJTIP20CA0026 through the Human Trafficking Research Initiative (HTRI) managed by Innovations for Poverty Action (IPA). The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.

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Child Labor and Forced Labor Reports

Minimal Advancement – Efforts Made but Regression in Practice that Delayed Advancement

In 2022, Bangladesh made minimal advancement in efforts to eliminate the worst forms of child labor. The Department of Inspections for Factories and Establishments rescued 3,990 children from working in various hazardous sectors. Furthermore, the government added five additional sectors to the hazardous work list (dried fish production; informal steel-based work; brick and stone production, collection, and carrying; tailoring and informal production of garments; and waste management), officially prohibiting children from working in these jobs. The Bangladesh government also launched its first national study on human trafficking. The study will help provide a baseline understanding of the human trafficking situation in the country, including how human trafficking crimes are committed and how victims are targeted. The government supported UNICEF’s rollout of the Myanmar Curriculum to over 250,000 Rohingya children in 2022, providing Rohingya students with a formal, standardized education based on Burma’s national curriculum. However, despite these initiatives to address child labor, Bangladesh is assessed as having made only minimal advancement because it continued to hinder educational opportunities for Rohingya children in 2022. Reports indicate that the Bangladesh government closed Rohingya-operated schools and threatened to confiscate UNHCR-issued identity cards from Rohingya teachers and move them to the flood-prone island of Bhasan Char, which hampered education access for Rohingya children. Furthermore, children in Bangladesh are still subjected to the worst forms of child labor, including commercial sexual exploitation, sometimes as a result of human trafficking, and forced labor in the drying of fish and the production of bricks. Children also perform dangerous tasks in the production of garments and leather goods. The Bangladesh Labor Act does not apply to children working in all sectors in which child labor occurs. Though the government did not publicly release information on its criminal law enforcement efforts related to child labor in 2022, penalties for child labor violations can only be imposed after a lengthy legal process and, when courts do impose them, the fines are too low to deter child labor law violations.

Table 1 provides key indicators on children’s work and education in Bangladesh. Data on some of these indicators are not available from the sources used in this report. The Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, with support from the ILO, started collecting data for their national child labor survey in 2022. The survey results have not yet been published. (1-3)

Source for primary completion rate: Data from 2021 , published by UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2023 . (4) Source for all other data: International Labor Organization's analysis of statistics from Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 6 (MICS 6), 2019. (5)

Based on a review of available information, Table 2 provides an overview of children's work by sector and activity.

† Determined by national law or regulation as hazardous and, as such, relevant to Article 3(d) of ILO C. 182. ‡ Child labor understood as the worst forms of child labor per se under Article 3(a)–(c) of ILO C. 182.

Approximately 1.7 million children in Bangladesh, many under the age of 11, are engaged in child labor. Approximately 3.45 million children between the ages of 5 and 17 are working in Bangladesh, of which 1.28 million are engaged in hazardous work. (3,27) Hazardous sectors include tanneries, shipbreaking, the dried fish industry, and rolling cigarettes. (1,3,12) In addition, 93 percent of child labor in Bangladesh occurs in the informal sector, including domestic work, street work, and work on small agricultural farms. (6,9,28) There are more than 400,000 children engaged in domestic work in Bangladesh. Some girls are forced into domestic work and are abused by their employers. (3,4,29) Further, children throughout Bangladesh are sexually exploited, including with the hazardous use of steroids for girls to appear older, in the country’s legal and illegal brothels, and child commercial sexual exploitation remained widespread during the reporting period. (3,9,30) Reports indicate that some police officers accept bribes to verify that workers in registered brothels are older than age 18 and to procure falsified documents for younger workers. (9,26) Some reports suggest that children are being hired at the local district level for jobs funded by the government's job creation projects. (3)

The government supported UNICEF’s rollout of the Myanmar Curriculum to over 250,000 Rohingya children in 2022, providing Rohingya students with a formal, standardized education based on Burma’s national curriculum. However, during the reporting period, the Government of Bangladesh closed most Rohingya-operated schools and continued to ban Rohingya children from attending schools outside of refugee camps. The government also expelled Rohingya students enrolled in public and private schools outside of refugee camps. (31-35) It also prohibits teaching Rohingya children the Bangla language or the national curriculum as part of the government's policy to prevent Rohingya refugees from integrating and permanently residing in the country. (32,33,36-39) Furthermore, during the reporting period, the government threatened to confiscate UNHCR-issued identity cards from Rohingya teachers and students and to move them to the flood-prone island of Bhasan Char. (32-40) Finally, there are reports of Bangladeshi officials taking bribes to provide human traffickers access to refugee camps and facilitate the trafficking of Rohingya children. (3) NGOs allege that some officials allow traffickers to operate at the India-Bangladesh border and check-points. (3,9)

More than 40 percent of schools lack basic sanitation facilities and basic hygiene services, and one in five schools lack safe drinking water. (41) Many schools in Bangladesh are overcrowded and over 80 percent run double shifts. (3) The country does not have an adequate number of teachers for an education system of its size. (3) The Primary Teacher Training Institutes cannot keep up with the demand for teachers, particularly in rural areas. (3) Other barriers to education include the high costs for transportation, uniforms, and school supplies. (3,6,42) In 2022, almost 20 million children were vulnerable to extreme weather, floods, river erosion, and sea-level rise. (43,44) Increases in such climate-related natural disasters that result in damage to property and crops push large sections of the population into poverty, making children more vulnerable to exploitative child labor and human trafficking. (3,43,44)

Bangladesh has ratified all key international conventions concerning child labor (Table 3).

The government has established laws and regulations related to child labor (Table 4). However, gaps exist in Bangladesh’s legal framework to adequately protect children from the worst forms of child labor, including a lack of protections against the commercial sexual exploitation of children.

* Country has no conscription (60)

During the reporting period, the Bangladesh government revised the list of hazardous work to include five additional sectors: dried fish manufacturing; street-based child labor such as hawking and trash collection; production, collection, and transportation of bricks and collection and transportation of stones; local tailoring and informal garment sectors; and garbage and waste management. (3,47) However, even with the hazardous work list amendment, the list does not cover domestic work, in which children are known to work long hours and are exposed to violence and sexual assault.(3,15,46,61-63)

The Bangladesh Labor Act does not meet international standards because a number of sectors are excluded from its application, including seamen, ocean-going vessels, agriculture farms with fewer than 10 workers, and domestic work. (28) Bangladesh does not criminalize the use, procurement, or offering of children in pornographic performances. Bangladesh does not criminalize the use of children who are not under guardianship in prostitution. (48,52) Bangladesh criminalizes the use of children in the transport of drugs, but does not criminalize the use of children in the production of drugs. (51) The Bangladesh Constitution also does not criminally prohibit the recruitment of children by non-state armed groups. (59) No compulsory education age is in effect because the compulsory education age of 10 in the Primary Education (Compulsory) Act does not go into effect until it is published in the Gazette. In addition, as the Primary Education (Compulsory) Act only provides compulsory education for children up to age 10, even if it is put into effect, children between the ages of 10 to 18 would remain particularly vulnerable to child labor as they do not have to be in school and they are not able to legally work without restriction. (16,64)

The government has established institutional mechanisms for the enforcement of laws and regulations on child labor (Table 5).

Labor Law Enforcement

In 2022, labor law enforcement agencies in Bangladesh took actions to address child labor (Table 6). However, gaps exist within the Department of Inspection for Factories and Establishments (DIFE) that may hinder adequate labor law enforcement, including a lack of unannounced inspections in the export processing zones.

†Data from July 1, 2021, to June 30, 2022. ‡Data are from July 1, 2022, to June 30, 2023.

Bangladesh employs 400 labor inspectors for a workforce of over 74 million workers. (66,73) The ILO and NGOs report that the number of labor inspectors in Bangladesh is inadequate and that the number of inspections carried out is insufficient given the size and population of the country. (73,74) The shortage in human resources and high turnover rates at DIFE led the agency to omit around 95 percent of industrial and commercial establishments from its inspection list. (3) Sources also indicate that DIFE is insufficiently funded and that inspectors are reluctant to enforce labor laws for fear of pushing people out of work and into poverty. (3)

Under the Export Processing Zone (EPZ) Labor Rules, published in October 2022, DIFE is required to provide notice to the Bangladesh EPZ Authority (BEPZA) by “intimation” prior to conducting inspections.(75) Following the inspection, DIFE must submit its report to the BEPZA Inspector General to implement recommendations the BEPZA Inspector General deems feasible. DIFE cannot file cases in the labor courts for violations in the EPZ. (75) Rather, the BEPZA Inspector General must file all cases in the EPZ Labor Court. During the reporting period, DIFE and BEPZA jointly developed standard operating procedures for inspecting EPZ factories. (3,75) For factories outside of the EPZs, DIFE must notify the establishment three times regarding a labor law violation before it can lodge a complaint in the labor courts. (3,75) Penalties for a child labor law violation carry a maximum fine of approximately $47 (5,000 taka), which is insufficient to act as a deterrent. (3,18,28,45) In addition, while a previous reciprocal referral mechanism existed between labor authorities and social services, DIFE lacks an active referral and rehabilitation system for children. (3,6)

Criminal Law Enforcement

In 2022, criminal law enforcement agencies in Bangladesh took actions to address child labor (Table 7). However, gaps exist within the operations of enforcement agencies that may hinder adequate criminal law enforcement, including the lack of publicly released criminal law enforcement information.

According to independent reports, during the reporting period, the Government of Bangladesh repatriated 21 survivors of human trafficking, including children. (9) But the Government of Bangladesh did not provide specific information on criminal law enforcement efforts against child labor crimes. Some reports have suggested that investigation coordination between agencies and authorities is lacking. (3) Many cases are resolved through mediation and settlement rather than prosecution. (3,6) According to reports, criminal investigators do not receive sufficient training on forced labor and child labor. (6) Despite the high number of children engaged in commercial sexual exploitation, the Government of Bangladesh largely ignores the issue due to the prevailing belief that commercial sexual exploitation is not a major issue in the country.(3) DIFE has the authority to refer cases only to the labor courts and not the criminal courts, even in cases requiring criminal court intervention. The labor courts have never referred a case to the criminal courts. (3) Corruption and the lack of enforcement of Occupational Health and Safety Codes contribute to industrial fires and fire-related worker deaths, including child laborers. (10,70,76)

The government has established a key mechanism to coordinate its efforts to address child labor (Table 8). However, gaps exist that hinder the effective coordination of efforts to address child labor, including coordination efforts that encompasses all child labor issues.

The Counter-Trafficking National Coordination Committee under the Ministry of Home Affairs (MOHA) formed counter-trafficking committees at the central government and grassroots levels to improve coordination. (78)

The government has established policies related to child labor (Table 9). However, policy gaps exist that hinder efforts to address child labor, including not covering all aspects of child labor in the country.

‡ The government had other policies that may have addressed child labor issues or had an impact on child labor. (84)

In 2022, the government funded and participated in programs that include the goal of eliminating or preventing child labor (Table 10). However, gaps exist in these social programs, including the discontinuation of a social program that could cause an increase in child labor.

For information about USDOL’s projects to address child labor around the world, visit https://www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/ilab-project-page-search

† Program is funded by the Government of Bangladesh. ‡ The government had other social programs that may have included the goal of eliminating or preventing child labor. (80)

Research has found that the government's social programs often align 16357 with the priorities of various domestic and foreign funders and lack coordination among relevant ministries to address the cross-cutting nature of child labor issues, such as its intersections with economic insecurity and education. (22) In addition, DIFE maintains the 16357 Hotline to receive complaints involving labor law violations. During the reporting period, the 16357 Hotline received 612 complaints; however, the complaints were not related to child labor. (3) The Department of Social Services manages the child protection 1098 Helpline. During the reporting period, the Ministry of Women and Children Affairs maintained a mobile app called "Joy," which records dialogue and images of child labor victims and perpetrators and sends relevant information to the National Helpline Center 109 and nearby police stations. (2) During the reporting period, around 300 people received emergency support through the "Joy" app. (66)

In 2022, Bangladesh launched its first national study on human trafficking. The study will help provide a baseline for the trafficking situation and examine how human trafficking crimes are committed and victims targeted in Bangladesh. (85)

Based on the reporting above, suggested actions are identified that would advance the elimination of child labor in Bangladesh (Table 11).

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• Redfern, Corinne. The Living Hell of Young Girls Enslaved in Bangladesh's Brothels The Guardian, July 6, 2019. https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2019/jul/06/living-hell-of-bangladesh-brothels-sex-trafficking
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• Government of Bangladesh. Labour Act. Enacted: June 2, 2006. Source on file.
• Mahboob, Dibakar. Where is the law and humanity for children working in domestic settings? The Daily Star. May 1, 2019.
• Panos, Akash. Bangladesh: The oldest profession in the world destroys the lives of young girls UNICEF. May 20, 2022. https://www.unicef.de/informieren/aktuelles/photo-of-the-year/contest-2010/-/gmb-akash/101916
• Human Rights Watch. Bangladesh: Rohingya Refugee Students Expelled April 1, 2019. https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/04/01/bangladesh-rohingya-refugee-students-expelled
• Human Rights Watch. Bangladesh: Rohingya Refugee Schools Face Closure. December 18, 2021. https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/12/18/bangladesh-rohingya-refugee-schools-face-closure#
• UNICEF. UNICEF: Education milestone for Rohingya refugee children as Myanmar curriculum pilot reaches first 10,000 children. May 1, 2022. https://www.unicef.org/press-releases/unicef-education-milestone-rohingya-refugee-children-myanmar-curriculum-pilot
• VOA Bangladesh Closes Rohingya Camp Private Schools April 19, 2022. https://learningenglish.voanews.com/a/bangladesh-closes-rohingya-camp-private-schools/6529953.html
• Human Rights Watch. Bangladesh: Officials Threaten Rohingya for Setting Up Schools March 21, 2022. https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/03/21/bangladesh-officials-threaten-rohingya-setting-schools
• Amnesty International. Bangladesh: Restore and strengthen capacity of community-led schools in Rohingya camps April 28, 2022. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2022/04/bangladesh-restore-and-strengthen-capacity-of-community-led-schools-in-rohingya-camps/
• Al Jazeera Bangladesh shuts school in Rohingya camp set up by slain leader March 29, 2022. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/3/29/bangladesh-shuts-school-in-rohingya-camp-set-up-by-slain-leader
• Shin, San Thai. Why we Rohingya want to save our refugee-run schools. The New Humanitarian, January 17, 2022. https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/opinion/first-person/2022/1/17/Rohingya-education-teacher-refugee-run-schools-Bangladesh-camps
• Hasnat, Saif and Yasir, Sameer Bangladesh Shutters Dozens of Schools Set Up by Rohingya in Camps. New York Times. May 2, 2022. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/02/world/asia/rohingya-bangladesh-school-closings.html#:~:text=the main story-,Bangladesh Shutters Dozens of Schools Set Up by Rohingya in,the refugees to stay permanently.
• Hasnat, Said and Yasir Sameer Bangladesh Shutters Dozens of Schools Set Up by Rohingya in Camps. May 2, 2022. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/02/world/asia/rohingya-bangladesh-school-closings.html
• Selim, Faria. Press release Schools ill-equipped to provide healthy and inclusive learning environments for all children. UNICEF. June 23, 2022. https://www.unicef.org/bangladesh/en/press-releases/schools-ill-equipped-provide-healthy-and-inclusive-learning-environments-all
• UNICEF. The Future of 37 million children in Bangladesh is at risk with their education severely affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. Dhaka, Bangladesh: October 19th, 2021. https://www.unicef.org/bangladesh/en/press-releases/future-37-million-children-bangladesh-risk-their-education-severely-affected-covid
• UNICEF. Climate change, children and violence top the agenda at innovative Visionaries speakers event. Dhaka. April 6, 2022. https://www.unicef.org/bangladesh/en/press-releases/climate-change-children-and-violence-top-agenda-innovative-visionaries-speakers
• UNODC. Global Report on Trafficking in Persons- 2022. January 2023. https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/glotip/2022/GLOTiP_2022_web.pdf
• Government of Bangladesh. Bangladesh EPZ Labour Act 2019. 2019.
• Ministry of Labor and Employment-Child Labor Unit. List of Worst Forms of Works for Children. 2013. Source on file.
• Government of Bangladesh. Bangladesh Gazette: List of Hazardous Work for Children. April 29, 2022. Source on file.
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• Government of Bangladesh. The Prevention and Suppression of Human Trafficking Act. Enacted: 2012. http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/543f75664.pdf
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• Government of Bangladesh. Primary Education (Compulsory) Act, 1990. Enacted: 1990. https://planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/en/1990/primary-education-compulsory-act-1990-act-no-27-1990-4770
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• Department of Inspections for Factories and Establishments. Vision and Mission. Ministry of Labour. Accessed January 23, 2023. http://www.dife.gov.bd/site/page/c6339314-9ba9-4118-81b4-896a86e39732/-
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• U.S. Embassy- Dhaka. Reporting. February 15, 2021.
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Child and Adolescent Labour in Bangladesh

• Child Labour :

United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) defines “child” as anyone below the age of 18 years old. UNICEF defined “Child labor is work that exceeds a minimum number of hours depending on the age of a child and on the type of work. Such work is considered harmful to the child and should therefore be eliminated.”

A child involved in child labour activities if between 5-11 years of age, he/she did at least one hour of economic activity a day or at least 28 hours of domestic work in a week & in case of children between 12-14 years of age, he/she did at least 14 hours of economic activity or at least 42 hours of economic activity & domestic work per week.

The International Labour Organization (ILO) defines child Labor as:

• When a child is working during early age.
• He overworks or gives overtime to Labour.
• He works due to the psychologically, socially, and materialistic pressure.
• He becomes ready to Labor on a very low pay.

According to the Labour Law of Bangladesh , the minimum legal age for employment is 14. However, as 93 per cent of child laborers’ work in the informal sector – in small factories and workshops, on the street, in home-based businesses and domestic employment.

• Difference between child work and child labour :

The UNICEF makes a distinction between these two terms. As they said:

• Child work is not bad, when that work is supervised by an adult, the work time isn’t excessive and if the work has no risk.
• Child labour is based on full time work, which can cause psychological and physical stress, inadequate salary or not having the chance to study because of that work.
• Forms of Child Labor :

There are many common to rare, but for better understanding, we can broadly categorize child Labor as:

• Away from home/ families :  Factories, Mining, Hotel Boy, Bus Helper.
• Agriculture :                          Harvesting, Farming.
• Household :                            Cooking, Sewing and Cleaning.
• Others :                                  Drug Trafficking, Circus, Begging etc.
• Distribution of Child Labor varies greatly depending on –

 Geography

 Culture and Religion

 Economic condition etc.

• Another Forms of child labour –
• Child work in Various Factories
• Hazardous Child Labour
• Child Prostitution and Pornography
• Children used in Armed Conflict
• Child Trafficking
• Children used for crime
• Domestic Works as Child Labour
• Trafficking and Commercial Sexual exploitation
• Child work in transportation
• Working street girls
• Child Labour in Bangladesh :

Bangladesh is a third world country. And because of is very reason, using the children as a labours is a very common and overlooked factor and the percentage of child labour is high. Bangladesh, as a developing country, child labour has socio-economic acceptance. Acceptance of child labour is a social crime and also a shame for society. Various statistics as well as news reports confirm that child labour is a growing problem for this country.

According to a UNICEF report of 2013,

• In Bangladesh, 7.4 million aged 5-17 and 4.7 million aged 5-14 Childs are working today.
• Children engaged in hazardous labour, 3.2 million aged 5-17 and 1.3 million aged 5-14.
• The percentage of child labour is overwhelmingly higher in rural areas of Bangladesh compared to urban areas, respectively 83% and 17%.
• Child domestic workers is 4.21 million.

According to a BBS and Others report,

• A BBS (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics) report in 2003 stated that 3.2 million were active child labourers while 1.3 million children were engaged in hazardous jobs. After 10 years, in 2013, the total figure of child labour was 3.45 million, with 1.288 million in hazardous jobs, an increase of around 250,000.
• There are many identified sectors of child labour in Bangladesh like in tea stalls, shops, waiters in hotels, bricklayers, automobile garages, plying rickshaws, farming and domestic service, where it is higher.  Around 87 per cent female and 12.3 per cent are male among domestic child workers, among them 42 per cent are children aged between 12 to 14 years.
• In Bangladesh, high rates of population growth, poverty, illiteracy are the reasons behind the increase of child labour. In 2016, 12.9% of citizens of Bangladesh lived in extreme poverty. For survival, poor families send their children to work as an extra income source for the family because the parents have no stable income to sustain their household expenditure. Highly inequitable distribution of national income and the poverty rate of Bangladesh increase the probability of people sending their children to work.
• The absence of legal safeguards against child labour is another major reason for the rising numbers child labourers in Bangladesh. Although there is a Child Labour Act 2006, a National Child Labour Elimination Policy 2010 and The Labour Act of 2013, all adopted to save our children from the dangers of child labour, it is regrettable that these acts remain confined to books, papers or articles where the laws were written.
• The dysfunction of laws not only helps to increase child labour but also encourages child labour exploitation. The rate of child labour exploitation is higher in the domestic labour sector than other sectors.
• Types of exploitation on children include physical and mental torture, sexual abuse and also murder. In Bangladesh, approximately 57 per cent of child workers are being tortured physically. According to Ain o Shalish Kendro (ASK), between 2008 and 2011, 2709 reports have been published in newspapers about violence against domestic workers, among them 729 children.

According to Nobel laureate Kailash Satyarthi, “Child labour perpetuates poverty, unemployment, illiteracy, population growth and other social problems.”

• Child Labour in The World :

Child labour is a major barrier blocking the latent talent of each child. According to the International Labour Organization (ILO), approximately 168 million children are trapped in work today, while around eight million children are involved in hazardous work.

Another Survey Passed by the ILO Results and trends, (2012-2016) :

• Worldwide 218 million children between 5 and 17 years are in employment; 152 million are victims of child labour.
• Almost half of them, 73 million, work in hazardous child labour . Hazardous child labour is most prevalent among the 15-17 years old.
• Nevertheless up to a fourth of all hazardous child labour (19 million) is done by children less than 12 years old.
• In absolute terms, almost half of child labour ( 72.1 million ) is to be found in Africa ; 62.1 million in the Asia and the Paci_c ; 10.7 million
• In the Americas ; 1.2 million in the Arab States and 5.5 million in Europe and Central Asia .
• In terms of prevalence, 1 in 5 children in Africa ( 19.6% ) are in child labour, whilst prevalence in other regions is between 3% and 7%: 2.9% in the Arab States (1 in 35 children); 4.1% in Europeand Central Asia (1 in 25); 5.3% in the Americas (1 in 19) and 7.4% in Asia and the Paci_c region (1 in 14).
• Almost half of all 152 million children victims of child labour are aged 5-11 years; 42 million (28%) are 12-14 years old; and 37 million (24%) are 15-17 years old.
• Among 152 million children in child labour, 88 million are boys and 64 million are girls . 58% of all children in child labour and 62% of all children in hazardous work are boys . Boys appear to face a greater risk of child labour thangirls, but this may also be a reaection of an under-reporting of girls’ work, particularly in domestic child labour.
• Child labour is concentrated primarily in agriculture (71%) , which includes shing, forestry, livestock herding and aquaculture, and comprises both subsistence and commercial farming; 17% in Services ; and 12% in the Industrial sector , including mining.
• Source:The ILO, Global Estimates of Child Labour: Results and trends, 2012-2016
• Consequences of Child and Adolescent Labour :

As in common sense, there are some benefit of child labour as given below:

• Oftentimes, families rely on the extra income produced by their children in order to sustain their livelihood.
• Many children are forced to work to help support the family. In other cases, children are forced to work for a living for themselves because their families abandoned or could not take care of them.
• It also help to increase the rate of GDP and GNP of the county.

But it has a great demerits as we learn from the world history as:

• Before 200 years ago, UK and US were involved in serious effect of child labour. As they made the child worker by their 7-8 years old children. The children worked as average of 10-16 hours daily.   According to The Workhouse: Story of an Institution in UK , there were 49% Child Labour as the whole labour force in the country in 1821.
• According to The Documentations of Child Labour: US National Archives in US, there were about 2 million Child in US who are actively involved in Child Labour before 100 years ago.

But all those developed country change their mind as on Child Labour as it harms very much in the child life as well as the economy of the country also. So, they started to educate their nation, because they understood that knowledge is the actual power in the modern world.    

• Dangerous Consequences for future of a Child or Adolescent Labour :

Physical injuries and mutilations are caused by badly maintained machinery on farms and in factories, machete accidents in plantations, and any number of hazards encountered in industries such as mining, ceramics and fireworks manufacture.

 Pesticide poisoning is one of the biggest killers of child laborers. In Sri Lanka, pesticides kill more children than diphtheria, malaria, polio and tetanus combined. The global death toll each year from pesticides is supposed to be approximately 40’000.

 Growth deficiency is prevalent among working children, who tend to be shorter and lighter than other children; these deficiencies also impact on their adult life.

 Long-term health problems , such as respiratory disease, asbestosis and a variety of cancers, are common in countries where children are forced to work with dangerous chemicals.

 HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases are rife among the one million children forced into prostitution every year; pregnancy, drug addiction and mental illness are also common among child prostitutes.

• Laws to prevent Child Labour in Bangladesh :

Child labour is a violation of fundamental human rights and has been shown to hinder children’s development, potentially leading to lifelong physical or psychological damage. Evidence points to a strong link between household poverty and child labour, and child labour perpetuates poverty across generations by keeping the children of the poor out of school and limiting their prospects for upward social mobility. This lowering of human capital has been linked to slow economic growth and social development. Recent ILO studies have shown that the elimination of child labour in transition and developing economies could generate economic benefits much greater than the costs, which are mostly associated with investment in better schooling and social services. The fundamental ILO standards on child labour are the two legal pillars of global action to combat child labour.

Key legislative landmarks in the international reappraisal of child labour include:

· 1919: ILO Minimum Age (Industry) Convention No.5: Establishes 14 years as the minimum age for industrial work

· 1930: ILO Forced Labour Convention No. 29: Provides for the suppression of forced labour in all its forms

· 1966: UN International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: Article 8 confirms that slavery and forced labour are unacceptable

· 1966: UN International Covenant on Economic, Social & Cultural Rights: Article 10 seeks protection for young people from economic or other exploitation and requires each State to set a minimum employment age.

· 1973: ILO Minimum Age Convention No. 138: Introduces an obligation to ensure that children are not employed at an age younger than that for completion of compulsory schooling. Associated Recommendation 146 calls for countries to raise minimum employment to 16 years.

· 1989: UN Convention on the Rights of the Child: Affirms the Childs right to the full range of civil, political, social, economic and cultural rights, including protection from work that is counter to the Childs interests.

· 1999: ILO Worst forms of child labour Convention No.182: addresses the extremes of child labour calling for their immediate elimination.

• Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138)

This fundamental convention sets the general minimum age for admission to employment or work at 15 years (13 for light work) and the minimum age for hazardous work at 18 (16 under certain strict conditions). It provides for the possibility of initially setting the general minimum age at 14 (12 for light work) where the economy and educational facilities are insufficiently developed.

• Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182)

This fundamental convention defines as a “child” a person under 18 years of age. It requires ratifying states to eliminate the worst forms of child labour, including all forms of slavery or practices similar to slavery, such as the sale and trafficking of children, debt bondage and serfdom and forced or compulsory labour, including forced or compulsory recruitment of children for use in armed conflict; child prostitution and pornography; using children for illicit activities, in particular for the production and trafficking of drugs; and work which is likely to harm the health, safety or morals of children. The convention requires ratifying states to provide the necessary and appropriate direct assistance for the removal of children from the worst forms of child labour and for their rehabilitation and social integration. It also requires states to ensure access to free basic education and, wherever possible and appropriate, vocational training for children removed from the worst forms of child labour.

• The Constitution of  Bangladesh  

Article 34 of the constitution defines the Prohibition of forced labour-

• All forms of forced labour are prohibited and any contravention of this provision shall be an offence punishable in accordance with law.
• Nothing in this article shall apply to compulsory labour :
• by person undergoing lawful punishment for a criminal offence or
• required by any law for public purpose.
• The Bangladesh Labour Act, 2006

It defines about child and adolescent worker employment and other necessary requirements. It is from Section 34 to 44 of this Act.

• The Mines Act, 1923
• The Children (Pledging of labour) Act, 1933
• The Employment of Children Act, 1938
• The Road Transport Workers Ordinance, 1961
• The Tea Plantation Labour Ordinance, 1962
• The Shops and Establishment Act, 1965
• Eliminations of Child Labour :

 To make the rural people aware about benefits of education.

 To contact NGOs and make them more aware.

 To start campaign against child labor.

 To help the government to stop child labor.

 Strictly implementation of laws.

 Rising awareness about children rights, thus changing view of the society.

 Making people aware about the benefits of education and providing free education for the orphans     and poor children.

 Running Campaign against child labor.

 Participating directly or Donating in child welfare funds e.g. in NGOs working for the rehabilitation of street children.

 We must have empathy. We have to consider the problem as our own.

 Every citizen should be aware of own responsibilities and should take corrective measures.

 Developing Policy and Legal Measurers

 Strengthening Institutional Capacity

 Promoting Quality Education

• Government Responsibilities :
• The Right to Survival:

It includes the rights to life, the attainable standard of health, nutrition, an adequate standard of living, name and nationality. That should be included:

– Health services

– Health education

– Recording child name and address.

– Family life education through drop in

– Center/Shelter.

• The Right of Protection:

It include to the special care and protection from all forms of exploitation, adult and inhuman or degrading treatment in situation of emergency and around conflict. It also aim to protect vulnerable children. That should be included:

– Drop in center/Shelter home

– Legal aid support

– Psychological Counseling

– Vocational Skill Training

– Job placement

– IGA activities

– Integration of children with their families

– Rehabilitation of children.

• NGO Responsibilities :

• Non-formal Education

• Vocational Training

• Health Services

• Drop in Center/Shelter

• Legal Aid Protection

• Psychological Counseling

• Job Placement

• Recreational Activities

• Networking

• Awareness Raising

• Marker Survey

Written By-

Md. Asraful Alam

Department of Law,

Jagannath University.

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People in the Workforce: Child Labor

• African Americans in the Workforce
• Hispanics/Latinos in the Workforce
• Glass Ceiling

Child Labor

• Domestic Workers
• Youth Employment
• Pay Equity/Wage Gap

Catalog Subject Headings

In the catalog, use the following subject headings:

Age and employment

Child agricultural laborers

Child labor

Children's rights

Girls - employment

Rural children - employment

Youth employment

Youth - employment

Youth unemployment

United States

Department of Labor, Wage and Hour Division web page that includes links to laws, regulations, guidance, fact sheets, publications, and tools regarding child labor.

Child Labor Law Resources

From the National Conference of State Legislatures, includes links to information about age and work permits, work hours for minors, school attendance requirements, child entertainer requirements, minors working in door-to-door sales, and recently enacted child labor legislation.

U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of International Labor Affairs (ILAB) - pages include links to fact sheets, reports, additional  publications, data, and frequently asked questions.

International Child Labor and Forced Labor Reports .

Reports: Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor ; the List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor ; and the List of Products Produced by Forced or Indentured Child Labor .

Includes " List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor , " a list of goods and their source countries which ILAB has reason to believe are produced by child labor or forced labor in violation of international standards.

Report on the Youth Labor Force (2000)

Bureau of Labor Statistics publication giving details about youth labor, including government regulations and labor outcomes.

Youth & Labor

Department of Labor web page featuring links to information from various parts of the Department including Wage and Hour Division, Office of Compliance Assistance Policy, Employment and Training Administration, etc.

International

Free2Work.org

Project created by the Not For Sale social impact organization, supported by the International Labor Rights Forum , a human rights organization. Provides forced and child labor ratings and reports for supply chains of popular brands and products within various industries.

ILO Library Resource Guide on Child Labour

Includes publications, statistics, and International Labour Standards conventions and recommendations. (For additional information, refer to the Child Labour topic pages.)

Understanding Children’s Work (UCW) Programme

"Inter-agency research cooperation initiative involving the International Labour Organisation (ILO), UNICEF and the World Bank."Web site provides country reports on child labor and youth employment, research reports, child labor, schooling and related indicators, and more.

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WHO declares mpox global health emergency

The World Health Organization (WHO) has declared the mpox outbreak in parts of Africa a public health emergency of international concern.

The highly contagious disease - formerly known as monkeypox - has killed at least 450 people during an initial outbreak in the Democratic Republic of Congo.

It has now spread across parts of central and east Africa, and scientists are concerned about how fast a new variant of the disease is spreading and its high fatality rate.

WHO chief Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus said the potential for further spread within Africa and beyond "is very worrying".

"A co-ordinated international response is essential to stop this outbreak and save lives," he said.

Mpox is transmitted through close contact, such as sex, skin-to-skin contact and talking or breathing close to another person.

It causes flu-like symptoms, skin lesions and can be fatal, with four in 100 cases leading to death.

Outbreaks can be controlled by preventing infections with vaccines, though these are usually only available for people at risk or those who have been in close contact with an infected person.

• Explained: What is mpox and how is it spread?
• Podcast: What does the new mpox strain mean for you?

There are two main types of mpox - Clade 1 and Clade 2.

A previous mpox public health emergency, declared in 2022, was caused by the relatively mild Clade 2. However, this time it is the far more deadly Clade 1 - which has killed up to 10% of those getting sick in previous outbreaks - that is surging.

There was a change in the virus around September last year. Mutations led to an offshoot - called Clade 1b - that has since spread rapidly. This new variant has been labelled “the most dangerous yet” by one scientist.

Since the start of the year, there have been more than 13,700 cases of mpox in the DR Congo, with at least 450 deaths.

It has since been detected in other African countries - including Burundi, the Central African Republic, Kenya and Rwanda.

It is hoped the declaration of mpox as a public health emergency will lead to research, funding, and the introduction of other international public health measures being accelerated.

Dr Josie Golding, from the Wellcome Trust, said it was a "strong signal", while Emory University's Dr Boghuma Titanji said the move "underscores the gravity of the crisis".

Prof Trudie Lang, the director of the Global Health Network at the University of Oxford, said it was "important and timely", but added that the emergence of a new strain meant there were "many unknowns that need to be addressed".

In July 2022 the milder Clade 2 strain of mpox spread to nearly 100 countries , including some in Europe and Asia.

It spread rapidly, and there were more than 87,000 cases and 140 deaths reported during that outbreak, according to a WHO count.

Although anyone can catch monkeypox, the outbreak was largely concentrated among men who had sex with men.

That outbreak was brought under control by vaccinating vulnerable groups.

On Tuesday, scientists from the Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention declared a public health emergency.

The head of the organisation, Jean Kaseya, warned that this current outbreak could spiral out of control if immediate steps were not taken to contain it.

"We must be proactive and aggressive in our efforts to contain and eliminate this threat," he said.

Additional reporting by Alex Smith